Chemical Engineering, Science & Technology Timeline
Compiled by Luis Klemas
Information without knowledge is noise, knowledge without wisdom is dangerous stupidity
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TIME LINE PERIODS
[Before 1800] [1800-1899] [1900-1924] [1925-1949] [1950-1974] [1975-2000]
Chemical Engineering, Science, Biology, Ecology, Environment.
Nobel Price
general
Science & Technology
Social,
Military, Political, and historic milestone events
Arts (Music, Painting, Literature, ...)
~440 BC: Democritus proposed the
concept of atom to describe the ultimate indivisible, indestructible
particles that composed the substance of all things. Lucretius (95-55 BC)
wrote De rerum natura inspired in the ideas of Democritus and
Epicurus.
399 BC: Socrates, the great Greek philosopher,
destroyed the arguments of many powerful and respected authorities, with a
simple question and answer dialectic. Thus he became subversive to the
established political order and was accused of impiety and innovation, he
was condemned to death, to drink an infusion of hemlock.
~390 BC: Plato develops his philosophy and
theory of knowledge
~340 BC: Aristotle proposed that Earth is a
sphere, that space is continuous and always filled with matter. He also laid the
basis of physics, metaphysics and geocentric cosmology.
~295 BC: Euclid develops the elements of
mathematics
~260 BC: Aristarchus of Samos estimated
distance and size of moon from Earth's shadow during lunar eclipse. He set the
basis of heliocentric cosmology.
~250 BC: Archimedes studied the equilibrium of
planes and the centre of gravity of planes and deduced the laws of the levers.
He also studied the sphere and the cylinder to deduce the surface area from
which the value of pi could be established. Archimedes could evaluate the
relative density of the bodies by observing the bouyancy force when immersed in
water. By all above he may be considered as the precursor of static mechanics.
~240 BC: Eratosthenes of Cyrene, director of
Alexandria library, calculated the diameter of Earth by measuring the sun shadow
at noon in Siena (Egypt) and Alexandria located at ~800 km north of Siena.
Knowing that the Earth is spheric, and the measured angle between both places is
7 degrees, the circumference of the spheric earth is aprox 50 times that
distance, that is approx 40,000 km, surprisingly close to the actually known
values. This fact was ignored during centuries when earth was considered flat
and the center of the universe. ...Read about Flat Earth History
~140 BC: Hypparcus estimated size of moon from
parallax of eclipse
1-33:
Jesus Christ was born. He taught the supremacy of spiritual values and
promised the human salvation through the practice of love, the recognition and
respect of a God Father, and the renunciation to the terrenal low
passions. These teachings were subversive both to the Roman rulers in Jerusalem
and to the Jewish Rabins. For this 'crime' Christ was condemned to the
crucifiction death. His followers, the apostols, spread his teachings and set
the foundations of a new religion: Christianism.
~70: Pliny the Elder wrote his Historia
Naturalis, a kind of universal enciclopedia in 39 books, compiling all that was
known about science of his day. In his chemistry related pages, the
description of gold properties and manufacture are exceptionally precise and
correct. Plinio died in Pompei during the eruption of the volcano the year 79.
~100 Hero of Alexandria discovered the
expansionof air with heat and set the laws of light reflection
~130: Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy)
wrote a mathematical and geographical treatise describing all ancient known
information about distances and locations of known places in earth, and a
catalogue of 1022 stars with positions calculated with trigonometric
analyisis. The Ptolomeic model puts the earth as the center of the universe: the
sun, the stars and planets revolve in circular orbits around the earth. This
model was in accordance with the views of Aristote, and his geocentric cosmology
of epicycles remained the standard interpretation for more than a millenium,
until the time of Copernicus.
721: Abu Hayyan preparation of chemicals such
as nitric acid.
890: Al-Razi discovered andromeda galaxy and
proposed atomic matter and space
1000: Ali Al-hazen worked on reflection,
refraction, lenses, and a pin hole camera to demonstrate that light travels in
stright line.
1260: Roger Bacon set the basis of empiricism
1266: Ambrosio di Bondone Giotto (1266-1317)
was the founder of the Florence School. He painted Life of Saint Francis (1296)
and Life of Christ in 1304.
1347: William Occam enunciated the principle
now known as Occam's Razor: "what can be explained by the assumption of
fewer things is vainly explained by the assumption of more things".
1440: Nicholas de Cusa wrote De docta
ignorantia, published 1n 1514, in which asserted that the world had no
boundaries, and consequently neither a perifery or a centre; it was not
infinite, merely interminate. Thus he denied the accepted hierarchic
structure and introduced a relativistic view of the complimentarity of oposites.
In other field, he suggested that plants grew by assimilation of water.
1475-1564: Michelangelo Buonarroti was born in
Florence. He became famous in 1497 with Bacchus and then in 1501 finished La
Pieta. From 1508 to 1512 he was forced by the Pope Jules II to paint the
cieling of the Sixtine Chappel. Paul III charges him the The Last Judgement in
1536, which he concludes in 5 years.
1480-1494 Leonardo de Vinci description of
parachute, reflection of light and sound, capillary action, flying machines,
pendulum clock
1483-1520: Raphael Sanzio, Italian School,
author of The Dream of the Chevalier, The Wedding of the Virgin.
1492: Cristóbal Colon (Christopher Columbus)
arrives to the shores of a new continent, heading the Spanish sailing
expedition, that expected to arrive to India. The continent was later called
America in honor to the italian cartograph Americo Vespucci.
1500: Leonardo da Vinci (1452 -1519) painted
Mona Lisa del Giocondo in Florence. He pointed out that animals could not
survive in an atmosphere that would not support combustion. In 1515 he pursued
progress and inventions in mechanics, aerodynamics and hydraulics.
1540: Johann Gutenberg received from Johann
Fust an advance of 800 guilders to develop his printing "tool". Probably the
first book printed was a vocabulary called Catholicon and then the
Latin Bible.
1543: Nicolaus Copernicus published the Book
of revolutions of the Heavenly spheres, writensince 1514, which remained
usold and unread. The Copernicus heliocentric model of universe is a revision of
the Ptolomeic model which had become too complex and inaccurate to accomodate
the known celestial bodies movements, based on a geocentric conception that
already required around 80 different orbital layers or epicycles.
1543: Andreas Vesalius made first modern
interpretation of anatomic structures in De Humani Corporis
Fabrica.
1546: Hieronymus Francastorius wrote On
Contagion, the first known discussion of the phenomenon of contagious infection.
1553: Michael Servet asserted that blood
circulates from the heart to the lungs and back to the left ventricle of the
heart.
1565: Bruegel The Elder painted The
Misanthrope and the series The Months.
1572: Tycho Brache observes a supernova, a
comet beyond the moon, and constructs a planetary observatory.
1577-1640 Petrus Paulus Rubens great master of
the Flemish School during the 17th century.
1581: Galileo Galilei observes the constancy of
period of pendulum. In 1589 showed that objects fall at the same rate
independent of their mass. In 1592 suggests that the physical laws of the
heavens are the same as those in earth. In 1604 he established that distance for
falling objects increases as square of time. In 1609 builds a telescope. In 1610
observes the phases of Venus, the moons of Jupiter, the craters of the moon,
stars in the Milky Way, the ring structures around Saturn. In 1612 works on
hydrostatics and the concept of inertia. In 1632 supports the Copernican
heliocentric system. In 1636 is condemned by the Inquisition tribunal and
forbbiden to teach and write on these theories.
1604: Johanes Kepler works on mirrors, lenses
and vision. In 1609 he establisshes the 1st and 2nd laws of planetary motion,
and develops the notion of energy. In 1611 sets the principles of the
astronomical telescope. In 1619 enonces the 3rd law of planetary motion.
1606-1669: Rembrandt (Harmenzoon Van Rijn)
great Dutch painter. By the end of his life, in poverty and suffering, painted
magnificent works such as The Anatomy Lesson, The Philosopher, and Selfportrait.
1616: William Harvey demonstrated his findings
on the circulation of blood. In 1628 he published Exercitacio Anatomica Motu
Cardis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, in which he describes the function of the
circulatory system, including the notion of the heart as a mechanical pump.
1619: René Descartes, famous by his Cogito
ergo sum, established the racionalism. Worked on inertia mechanistic
physics, and refraction. He postulated that impulses originating in the sensory
receptors of the body were carried to the central nervous system where they
activated muscles by what he called "reflection".
1620: Francis Bacon writes on the empirical
scientific method.
1635: John Winthrop, Jr., opens America's first
chemical plant in Boston. They produce saltpeter (used in gunpowder) and alum
(used in tanning).
1640: Evangelista Torricelli theory of
hydodynamics. In 1644 devised the mercury barometer and created artificial
vacuum.
1642: Blaise Pascal invented a machine to
perform additions and substraction, the Pascalina a remote precursor of
calculating machines. In 1648 explained that baromer pressure is the result of
the atmospheric pressure.
1660: Nicaise Le Febvre, in Traité
de la Chymie held that the function of air in the respiration was to
purify the blood.
1660: Robert Boyle found tjhat sound will not
travel in vaccum, coceived a corpuscular theory of matter and investigated
chemical elements, acids and bases. In 1662 found that the volume occupied by
the same sample of any gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to
the pressure. This statement is known as Boyle's law. He also conducted
experiments upon gases and effect of Combustion and Respiration on
the atmosphere. In 1670 he produced hydrogen by reacting metals with acid.
1668: Publication of John Mayow's Treatise on
respiration, containing accounts of experiments on alterations produced in air
by respiration and combustion.
1680: Isaac Newton demonstrates that inverse
square law implies eliptical planet orbits, in 1684 set the inverse square law
and mass dependence of gravitypublised , and in 1687 publishes his
"Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Matematica". The whole
development of modern science begins with this great book. Newton set the
foundations of mechanics, both cosmologic and terrestrial, the theory of
gravitation, a theory of light, and also concurrently with Leibnitz in
1684, the invention of differential calculus, just to mention the most
remarkable of his achievements.
1683: Antoni von Leewenhoek discovered
bacteria.
1685: Johan Sebastian
Bach (1685-1750) born in Eisenach-Thuringia. Generally regarded as
one of the greatest composers of all time.
1690: John Locke enuntiated that knowledge
comes only from experience and sensations.
1694: Rudolph Camerarious published De Sexu
Plantarium Epistola, which presented a conclusive demonstration of the sexuality
of plants.
1709: Gabriel Fahrenheit constructed the
alcohol thermometer, and in 1714 the mercury thermometer
1710: Publication of John Ray's Historia
Insectorum, and in 1713 Synopsis of Birds.
1715: Thomas Fairchild announced the production
of the first artificial hybrid plant.
1720's: Newcomen's steam engine comes into
general use.
1722: Réamur published "L'art de convertir le
Fer Forgé en Acier" solving the secret garded mistery of steel-makers, that
steel is iron containing not too much, not too little carbon. He developed the
alcohol/water thermometer in 1731.
1727: Stephen Hales concluded that plants are
nourished in part by the atmosphere. He also studied the ascent of water in
plants and applied physical principles to the study of plant physiology. In 1773
he made the first measurement of blood pressure.
1736: Leonhard Euler develops differential
equations in mechanics. In 1744 the Euler-Lagrange equations and in 1746 the
wave theory of light refraction and dispersion. In 1765 work on rigid body
motions.
1738: Daniel Bernoulli work on kinetic theory
of gas, and hydrodynamics
1742: Anders Celsius developed the centigrade
temperature scale.
1743: Jean d'Alembert introduces the concept of
energy in newtonian mechanics. In 1744 develops the theory of fluid dynamics.
1752 on viscosity.
1746: Charles Binnet studied photosynthesis in
plants. Roebuck deviced a process to manufacture sulphuric acid.
1749: England begins a Lead-Chamber Method to
produce sulphuric acid.
1749: George Louis de Buffon's Histoire
Naturelle asserted that species were mutable.
1750: Benjamin Franklin theory of electricity
and lightning.
1750's: Classic British Industrial Revolution
begins (often said to last until 1830's, however The Industrial Revolution
continues to this day).
1756: Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart (1756 Salzburg - 1791 Vienna) One of the greatest musicians in
all times, together with Bach and Beethoven.
1756: Joseph Black discovery of carbon dioxide.
In 1761 mesured latent and specific heats.
1758: Carl von Linné published Sistema Naturae,
introducing many concepts used today by taxonomists.
1759: Caspar Friedrich Wollf's Theoria
Generationis proposed an epigenetic theory of development which was oposed to
preformationism and laid the basis for modern embriology.
1760's: James Watt improves on the Newcomen
Engine.
1761: Joseph Kölreuter published reports in
artificial hybridisation.
1766: Henry Cavendish discovered "inflamable
air" (hydrogen), which he concluded to be a combination of water and phlogiston,
since its combustion yielded water.
1770: Ludwig van
Beethoven (1770 Bonn - 1827 Vienna) One of the greatest composers of the
classical period and of all time.
1770: John Priestley discovered Oxygen
and showed that is consumed by animals and produced by the plants.
1772: Daniel Rutherford described "residual
air", the first published description of Nitrogen.
1772: Joseph Priestley and Jan Ingenhousz
investigated photosynthesis.
1772: Antoine Lavoisier proposed the
concept of conservation of mass in chemical reactions, showed that fire is due
to the exothermic reaction between substances and oxygen. He named a gas
discovered by Cavendish, that burned to produce water, hydrogen
(Greek, water producer). Also demonstrated that CO2, nitric acid, and
sulphuric acid contained oxygen. In 1778 Lavoisier demonstrated
the nature of animal respiration, in 1787 demonstrated the distinction between
elements and compounds, and created a system for naming chemicals. In 1789
proved the conservation of mass in chemical reactions.
1774: Carl Scheele discovered element chlorine
and in 1781 molybdenum. In 1774 Johann Gahn separated Manganese.
1776: The United States declares its
independence from England.
1779: Jan Ingelhousz showed that illumination
was required for oxygen production in plants. He also showed that plants use
carbon dioxide.
1780: Luigi Galvani noticed that several
pairs of frog's legs contracyed whenever there was a spark; six years latter he
observed that it ws really not necessary to have the electrical apparatus, that
the frogs' legs would contract if two different metals in contact were applied
to the nerve and the muscle. Lazaro Spallanzani performed experiments in
artificial fertilisation in amphibians, silkmoth, and dog.
1780: Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre
Laplace published their Memoire on Heat, in which they reach the conclusion
that respiration is a form of combustion.
1781: The Americans defeat the British in the
last major battle of the War of Independence at Yorktown, Virginia.
1783: Lazaro Spallanzani performed experiments
demonstrating that digestion is a chemical process rather than a mechanical
grinding of the food.
1785: Charles de Coulomb measured atraction and
repulsion forces of electricaly charged particles, and discovered that these
forces are inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
1787: The U.S. Constitution is written.
1787: Jacques Alexandre César Charles studied
the gas volume changes with temperature finding that volume changes 1/273 for
each 1° C at the water freezing temperature and in 1802 Louis Joseph
Gay-Lussac was the first to announce this behaviour as a general gas law.
1789: The French Revolution.
1789: Antoine Lavoisier published Traité
Elémentaire de Chimie, in which Fermentation is described as the
splitting of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Lavoisier established the
principle of mass balance or in other words the conservation of matter.
1789: Nicholas Le Blanc develops his process
for converting common salt into soda ash.
1790: Metric System is introduced in France
1795: Alessandro Volta showed how to produce
electricity by simply putting two different pieces of metal together, with
liquid or damp cloth between them, and he thus produced the first electrical
current battery.
1798: Thomas Robert Malthus published his Essay
on the Principles of Population.
1800: Karl Friederich Burdach
coined the term "Biology" to denote the study of human morphology,
physiology and psychology.
1800: William Herschel identified infrared rays
from the sun. in 1801 Johan Ritter discovered ultraviolet rays.
1802: Jean Baptiste Lamarck elaborated a
theory of evolution based on heritable modification of organs. Joseph
Gay-Lussac found relation between temperature and volume of gas at constant
pressure.
1802: The E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company
(Du Pont) is founded and builds a gunpowder factory along the banks of
the Brandywine River near Wilmington, Delaware.
1803: William Wollaston found elements rhodium
and palladium. Smithson Tennant discovered elements osmium and iridium.
1804: John Dalton enuntiated the Law of partial
pressures, known as Dalton's law.
1804: Nicholas Theodore de Saussure published
experiments on photosynthesis, and described the balanced equation of the
process.
1805: Geoges Cuvier published his Lessons in
Comparative Anatomy.
1806: Louis Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre
Robiquet first isolated an amino acid, asparagine, from asparagus.
1807: Humprey Davy utilized electric current to
prepare metals from molecules, such as sodium, potasium, magnesium, calcium,
strontium and barium. He proposed an atomic theory of chemical reactions.
1808: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac Law of gas
volumes in chemical reactions. In 1810 deduced the equations of alcoholic
fermentation.
1809: Jean Baptiste Lamarck investigated the
microscopic structure of plants and animals and percieved that cellular tissue
is the general matrix of all organization. He also published his Philosophie
Zoologique, where enphasized the fundamental unity of life.
1809: Nicolas François Appert, inventor and
bacteriologist, demonstrated a procedure for preservation of foods by canning.
1811: Amadeo Avogadro demonstrated that equal
volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain the same number of molecules, and that a fixed number of molecules of
any gas will weight proportional to the molecular weight. Presently the accepted
value for the Avogadro number is 6.023 x 1023 molecules per
gram-mol. Bernard Courtois discovered element iodine.
1815: Joseph von Fraunhofer developed the
spectroscope. William Prout proposed that atomic weights of elementsa are
multiples of that for hydrogen.
1817: Johan Arfvedson discovered element
lithium. Jons Berzelius discoverted selenium and later, in 1824 isolated
element zirconium.
1819: Dulong and Petit developed a relation of
specific heats to atomic weight in solid elements.
1820: Andre Ampere force on an electric current
in a magnetic field. Hans Christian Oersted found that na electric
current deflects a magnetised needle; he also isolated element aluminum.
Biot and Savart enuntiate the force law between ana electric
current and a magnetic field. Thomas Seebeck works on thermocouple and
thermochemistry.
1821: Michael Faraday plotted thje magnetic
field around a conductor, and created the first electric motor. In 1823 he
liquifies chlorine.
1822: Charles Babbage develops a prototype
calculating machine. Ampere discovers that two wires with electric
current attract.
1824: Sadi Carnot published his
Reflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu, setting various
outstanding principles that constitute the basis of actual
Thermodynamics. Exploring various cycles and the efficiency of
conversion of heat into mechanical work reached several fundamental
generalizations such as: 1. when a body has undergone many changes and after a
certain number of transformations is brought back identically to its original
state, considered relatively to density, temperature, and mode of
aggregation, it must contain the same quantity of heat as it contained
originally. 2. The motive power obtainable from heat is independent from the
agents employed to realize it; the efficiency achievable is fixed solely by the
temperature of the bodies between which, in the last resort, transfer of heat is
effected. All above statements constitute the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
Carnot also advanced in the concept of the equivalence of heat energy and
mechanic energy, which is known today as the Law of Conservation of Energy
or the 1st Law of Thermodynamics. Later, in 1846, Joule
accomplished a more precise demonstration of such equivalence for various
forms of energy (heat - electrical - mechanical).
1827: J. B. Fourier outlines atmospheric
process by which earth's temperature is altered, using a hothouse analogy.
Georg Ohm work on electrical resistance and enounces Ohm's law. Robert
Brown investigated brownian motion. Antoine Balard identifies element
bromine.
1828: Friederich Wöhler synthesized the first
organic compound from inorganic compounds, preparing Urea by reacting lead
cyanate with ammonia. He also isolates element yttrium.
1829: Thomas Graham gas diffusion law. Jons
Berzelius identified element thorium.
1830-40: Justus von Liebeg developed techniques
in quantitative analysis and applied them to biological systems, and the concept
that vital activity could be explained in physico-chemical terms.
1831: Michael Faraday showed that the relation
between magnetism and electricity was dynamic and not static ---that a magnet
had to be moved near an electric conductor for the current to arise. This
crucial observation showed that not only was magnetism equivalent to electricity
in motion but also, conversely, electricity was magnetism in motion. Faraday
designed the electric dynamo, the electric transformer and set the laws of
electrolysis. Later, Clerk Maxwell summarized in concise form the
electromagnetic theory.
1833: Jean Baptiste Boussingnault recommended
the use of iodized salt to cure goiter. Later in 1850 Boussingnault demostrated
that plants can grow on inorganic soil, so that they obtain their carbon from
the atmospheric CO2, but the nitrogen is obtained from the soil.
1835: Ralph Waldo Emerson writes the essay
Nature.
1835: Jöns Jacob Berzelius demonstrated that
the hydrolysis of starch is catalised more efficiently by malt diastase than by
sulphuric acid. He published the first general theory of chemical catalysis.
1837: René Dutrochet recognized that
chlorophyll was necessary for photosynthesis.
1838: Daguerre, L.: Photography. Opium
war (1839-1842) between England and China
1839: Pierre François Verhulst developed the
logistic model of population growth.
1840: Publication of Justus von Liebig's
Thierchemie. wich united the field of chemistry and physiology. He pointed
out that that organic compounds in plants are synthesized from carbon dioxide of
the atmosphere while nitrogenous compounds are derived from precursors in the
soil.
1842: Julius Robert Mayer enunciated the Law of
Conservation of Energy (1st Law of Thermodynamics), after establishing the work
equivalent of Heat. Christian Doppler develops the theory of Doppler
effect for ssound and light. James Joule mechanical and electrical
equivalent of heat. Eugene-Melchior Peligot isolated element uranium.
1844: Morse, S.: First telegraph circuit.
1845: Herman. von Helmoltz and Julius Robert
Mayer formulated the Laws of Thermodynamics.
1845: Alfred Kolbe synthesized acetic acid.
Kark Klaus identified element ruthenium.
1846: Gustav Kichhoff enuntiated Kirchhoff's
laws of electrical networks. Adams and Le Verrier predicted
position of Neptune.An ether-soaked sponge became the first successful
surgical anesthetic helping to remove a tumor at the Massachusetts
General Hospital in Boston.
1848: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
created the absolute temperature scale and in 1851 defined the absolute zero
temperature. James Joule deduced the average velocity of gas molecules
from kinetic theory.
1848: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels:
The Communist Manifesto The American-Mexican War comes to a close.
1849: Armand Fizeau first accurate measurement
of the velocity of light.
1850: Rudolf Clausius generalised second law of
thermodynamics. The first petroleum refinery consisting of a one-barrel
still is built in Pittsburgh by Samuel Kier.
1850: Claude Bernard isolated glycogen from the
liver, showed that it is converted into blood glucose, and discovered the
process of gluconeogenesis.
1852: Jean Foucault demonstrates rotation of
Earth with a pendulum and constructs the first gyroscope. Joule and
Thomson found that an expanding gas cools, known as the Joule-Thomson
effect.
1853: Kerosene is extracted from
petroleum.
1854: Louis Pasteur discovered microbial
fermentation of beet sugar. Hermann von Helmholtz predicts the Heath
death of the universe. George Airy estimate of Earth mass from
underground gravity.
1854: The Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company becomes
the first oil company in the U.S. H.D. Thoreau published "Walden"
1855: W. Whitman published "Leaves of the
Grass". The Universal Exhibition in Paris.
1855: Benjamin Silliman, of New Haven,
Connecticut, obtain valuable products by distilling petroleum. They
include; tar, naphthalene, gasoline, and various solvents.
1856: Seeking to make a substitute for quinine, the
first artificial aniline coal tar dye is discovered by William H. Perkin.
1856: Carl Friederich Wilhem Ludwig develops
perfusion techniques for keeping animal organs alive after removal from the
body. He also invented the kymograph, mercurial blood pump and a blood flow
measuring device. Ludiwg was first to study the role of the nervous system on
blood flow and secretory function.
1856: Bessemer devised a process to make cast
steel in a large scale, by blowing air throgh melted pig iron to burn the carbon
and maitain the resulting steel melted. In 1867 Siemens revived the
Reamur steelmaking process applying the principle of heat regeneration, using
spent hot gases to preheat the air to the open hearth furnace, to obtain
steel from pig, scrap and ore. In 1879 Gilchrist Thomas deviced the
process to produce steel from poor minerals developping the basic lining to
absorb the deterious phophorus.
1857: Albrecht von Köliker discovered
"sarcosomes" (mitochondria) in muscle cells. Claude Bernard demonstrated
the formation of glycogen by the liver. Louis Pasteur demonstrated that
lactic acid fermentation is carriedout by bacteria. Charles Baudelaire published "Les fleurs du mal".
1858: Stanislas Cannizzaro determined the
atomic weights based on previous findings of Dalton, Gay-Lussac,
and Avogadro.
1858: Louis Pasteur noted that Penicillium
molds fermented only dextrotartaric acid and not the levo isomer. Rudolph
Virchaw applied the cell theory to problems of pathology an disease and set
forth the illuminating principle that the outward symptoms of disease are merely
reflections of impairment at the level od cellular organization. He also
advanced the notion that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Charles Darwin announces the Natural Selection Theory ---that
members of a population who are better adapted to the environment survive and
pass on their treats. Friederich August Kekulé von Stradonitz proposes
that carbon atoms can form chains. Second Opium War (1858-1860) between
England and China
1859: Charles Darwin publishes "The Origin
of Species". Alfred Kolbe sintesized salicylic acid.
1859: The first commercially successful U.S. Oil Well
is drilled by E. L. Drake near Titusville, Pennsylvania. This 70 foot
well launches the petroleum industry. Hittorf and Plucker dicover
cathode rays. Bunsen and Kirchhoff measurement of spectral line
frequencies. Kirchhoff law on black body radiation. In 1961 they found
elements caesium and rubidium in spectra.
1860: First International Congress of Chemistry in
Karlsruhe, where Canizzaro presented new methods determine
atomic weights; Oxygen weight of 16 was adopted as measuring basis of
element weights, thus setting Hydrogen, the lightest known element, weight to
aproximately 1. Louis Pasteur germ theory of disease revolutionizes
concepts of Medicine and public health. Berhelot organic chemistry
based on synthesis
1860: Ettienne Lenoir constructed the first
practical combustion engine.
1861: Civil War in the United States
(1861-1865). Founding of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
1862: Julius von Sachs produced experimental
evidence that starch was a product of photosynthesis. Andreas Angstrom
observed hydrogen in the sun. Bismark becomes Prime Minister of Prussia.
1863: Ernest Solvay perfects his method for
producing sodium bicarbonate. William Huggins stellar spectra
indicate that stars are made of same elements as found on Earth. Reich
and Richter found element indium from spectra.
1863: The Red Cross is founded. The British
government passes the "Alkali Works Act" in an attempt to control
environmental emissions.
1864: Ernst Haekel outlines the essential
elements of modern zoological clasification. Louis Pasteur demolition of
the doctrine of spontaneous generation. Ernst Seyler performed the first
crystallization of a protein: hemoglobin. James Clerk Maxwell equations
of electrmagnetic wave propagation.
1865: The U.S. Civil War (1861-65) ends.
1865: Friederich August Kekulé devices a ring
model for the structural formula of benzene. Gregor Mendel published
theories on heredity. Louis Pasteur Patents on the preservation of
wine.The first U.S. petroleum pipeline is built from an oil field near
Titusville, Pennsylvania to a nearby railroad. Rudolf Clausius introduced
the term entropy. Richard Wagner opera
"Tristan und Isolde". Lewis Carrol "Alice in Wonderland". Leo Tolstoi
"War and Peace"
1866: Dynamite is patented by Alfred
Nobel. Dynamoelectric principle is presented by W. Siemens.
1866: Gregor Mendel published his
investigations on plant hybrids and the inheritance of "factors". Ernst
Heinrich Haekel hypothesizes that the nuclei of a cell transmits its
hereditary information. He was the first using the term "ecology" to
describe the study of living organisms and their interactions with other
organisms and with their environment.
1866: Celluloid is invented by a British
entrepreneur named Alexander Parkes ("The Father of Plastics")
1867: James Clerck Maxwell statistical physics
and thermal equilibrium. Henry Recoe isolation of element vanadium. The
Typewriter is invented."Das Kapital" (Volume 1) by Karl Marx.
Russia sells Alaska to U.S.
1868: Charles Darwin elaborated the theory of
pangenesis. Jean Baptiste Boussingnault pointed out that plants require
oxygen for the photosynthesis. Pierre-Jules Janssen observed lines of
helium in sun's spectrum. Helium was then recognized and named by Lockyer
and Crookes. Doppler shifts in stellar spectra was observed by William
Huggins.
1869: Dmitri Mendelejeff published a chemical
elements arrangement table. This is the basis of the well known periodic
table. Mendelejeff then predicted new elements such as scandium, germanium,
technetium, francium and gallium. In 1972 during a visit to the Titusville oil
field he warns that petroleum is too valuable to be burned.
1869: Opening of the Suez Canal. The
Transcontinental Railroad is completed as the Golden Spike is driven in
at Promontory Point, Utah.
1869: Celluloid was produced by John
Hyatt in Albany, New York. The breakthrough came about because of a search
for an ivory substitute that could be used to make billiard balls. Celluloid was
the first synthetic plastic to receive wide commercial use.
1870: Justus von Liebeg proposed that all
ferments were chemical reactions rather than vital impulses.
1871: Johan Friederich Miescher isolated a
substance which he called "nuclein" from the nuclei of white blood cells. This
substance came to be known as nucleic acid. Ludwig Boltzmann classsical
explanation of Dulong-Petit specific heats.
1871: Insurrection in the Paris Commune.
Bismark established the German Empire (Reich) unifying Germany.
1872: Carl Friederich Wilhem Ludwig and
Eduard Pfünger studied the gas exchange process in the blood and showed
that oxidation occurs in the tissues rather than in the blood. Lodygin,
produced the first incandescent lamps in Russia.
1873: James Clerk Maxwell electromagnetic
nature of light and prediction of radio waves. Johannes van der Walls
intermolecilar forces in fluids. Anton Schneider oberved and described
the behaviour of nuclear filaments (chromosomes) during cell division, providing
the first accurate description of the process of mitosis in animal
cells. London fog kills 1,150 people; similar incidents repeated in
the following 20 years.
1874: German graduate student Othmar Zeider
discovers the chemical formula for DDT. George Stoney esstimated the unit
of charge and named it the electron. Kirchoff, G.R.: Spectral analysis of
elements. Braun, K. F.: Rectifying effect of semiconductors
1875: Oscar Hertwig showed taht the head of the
spermatozoon becomes a pronucleus and combines with the female pronucleus as the
zygote nucleus, thus establishing the concept that fertilization is the
conjugation of two cells. Paul-Emile Lecoq element gallium.
1876: Alexander Graham Bell patented the
Telephone. Nikolaus August Otto designed the first four stroke
piston engine.
1876: The American Chemical Society (ACS) is
formed. Robert Koch showed that anthrax was caused by a specific
organism.
1877: Ludwig Boltzmann derived the
Boltzmann's probability equation for entropy. Wilhelm Friederich Kühne
proposed the term enzyme (meaning "in yeast") and distinguished enzymes from
the micro-organisms that produce them. Cailletet and Pictet
produced liquid oxygen and nitrogen. Thomas Edison patented the
phonograph.
1878: Josiah Willard Gibbs developed the theory
of Chemical Thermodynamics introducing fundamental equations and
relations to calculate multyphase equilibrium, the phase rule, and the free
energy concept. His work remained unknown until 1883, when Wilhelm Ostwald
discovered his work and translated it to German.
1879: Walther Flemming described and named
"chromaton", "mitosis" and "spireme", made the first accurate counts of
chromosome numbers and figured the longitudinal splitting of chromosomes.
Joseph Stefan radiation law. Lars Fredrik Nilson element scandium.
William Crookes suggested that cathode rays may be negatively charged
particles. Albert Michelson improved measurements for the speed of light.
1879: First electric train developed by W.
von Siemens is presented at the international exposition in Berlin.
Thomas Edison and Sir Joseph Swan independently devise the
first practical electric lights.
1880: Andrew Carnage develops his first, large,
steel furnace. George Davis proposes a "Society of Chemical
Engineers" in England. Sydney Ringer investigated the influence of
inorganic ions on heart contraction, making possible an analysis of heart
metabolism and the replacement of body fluids and the perfusion of isolated
tissues using the Ringer's solution. J-M. Charcot findings concerning
deseases of the central nervous system. A. Rodin
sculpure "The Thinker"
1881: Louis Pasteur gave a public demonstration
of the effectiveness of his anthrax vaccine.
1882: Thomas Edison builds the first
hydroelectric power plant in Appleton, Wisconsin. Robert Koch
discovers the rod-like tubercle bacillus responsible for tuberculosis
(TB).
1883: Osborne Reynolds published his paper on
the Reynolds' Number, a dimensionless quantity which characterizes
laminar and turbulent flow by relating kinetic (or inertial) forces to viscous
forces within a fluid. Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal
developed and refined the silver nitrate technique to give a completely new
picture of the intricate relationships between neurons. Max Rubner
discovered that metabolic rate is proportional to the surface of the body.
Georg Fitzgerald theory on radio transmission. G. Daimler patents
the gasoline combustion engine. Friederich
Nietzsche publishes "Thus Spoke Zarathustra".
1884:Ludwig Boltzmann derivation of Stefan law
for black bodies. J.H. Van't Hoff develops on Chemical Equilibrium.
Svante Arrhenius and Friederich Ostwald independently defined
acids as substances which release hydrogen ions when disolved in water.
Christian Joachim Gram invented his satining method for
classification of bacteria. Elie Metchnikoff proposed a
cellular theory of inmunity. The Solvay process is transferred to
the United States and the Solvay Process Co. begins making soda ash in
Syracuse. Viscose Rayon is invented by the French chemist Hilaire
Chardonnet. The World's first Skyscraper begins to be erected in
Chicago.
1885: The gasoline automobile is developed by
Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler. Before this, gasoline was an
unwanted fraction of petroleum which caused many house fires because of its
tendency to explode when placed in Kerosene lamps. Louis Pasteur treated
Joseph Meister for rabies. Emil Hansen instituted pure culture starters
in the fermentation of beer. Johann Balmer empirical formula for hydrogen
spectral lines.
1886: The first modern Oil Tanker, the
Gluckauf, was built for Germany by England. Ernst Abbe of the
Zeiss Optical Works, developed the apochromatic microscope lens. Victor
Alexander Haden Horsley induced cretinism and myxoedema in monkeys by
experimentaly removing the thyroid gland. Henri Moissan issolated
fluorine. Clemens Winkler isolated element germanium. Fedor Dostojevski publishes "Crime and
Punishment".
1887: Svante Arrhenius Ionic Theory of
Electrolytes. August Weismann elaborated a theory of chromosome behavior
during cell division and fertilization predicting the occurrence of meiosis.
Oscar Minkowski associated acromegaly with a hyperfunctional pituitary
gland. Emil Fischer elaborated the structural patterns of proteins.
Heinrich Hertz transmission, reception and reflection of radio waves.
Michelson and Morley fine structure of hydrogen spectrum. Hertz and
Hallwacks photoelectric effect. Woldemar Voigt anticipated Lorentz
transform to derive Doppler shift. Claude Debussy
"Le Printemps"
1888: George Davis provides the blueprint for a
new profession as he presents a series of 12 lectures on Chemical Engineering at
the Manchester, England. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology begins
"Course X" (ten), the first four year Chemical Engineering program in the
United States. Pasteur Institute founding in Paris. Heinrich Hertz
performed the first experiments with a receptor to "hear" herzian
radio waves.
1889: Francis Galton formulated the law of
ancestral inheritance, a statistical description of the relative contribution to
heredity made by ancestors. Joseph von Mering and Oscar Minkowski
duplicated the symptoms of diabetes in the dog by experimental excision of the
pancreas. Construction of Eiffel Tower in Paris. J.B. Dunlop
patent for bicycle tires.
1890: Theodor Boveri and Jean Louis
Guignard established the numerical equality of paternal and maternal
chromosomes at fertilization. Emil Adolf von Behring discovered
antibodies and antitetanus serum.
1891: Heinrich Wilhelm Weldiger proposed the
neuron theory of the nervous system. Marie Eugene Dubois discovered Java
man and named it Pithecanthropus Erectus, now known as Homo erectus. T.A.
Edison motion picture camera. Construction of the trans-Siberian
railroad starts.
1892: Diesel develops his internal combustion
engine. G. Daimler first petrol-driven car. Dmitri Iosifochich
Ivanovski discovered a disease-causing agent smaller than bacteria: viruses.
1893: Sorel published "La rectification de
l'alcool" were he developed and applied the mathematical theory of the
rectifying column for binary mixtures. William Ostwald proved that
enzymes are catalysts. The John Hopkins Medical School is founded.
1894: Karl Pearson published the first of a
series of contributions to the mathematical theory of evolutioin and methods for
analyzing statistical frequency distribution. Emil Fischer conducted
investigations which form the basis of the notion of enzyme specificity.
William Maddock Bayliss and Henry Sterling studied the electric
currents in mamalian heart. George Oliver and Eduard Albert
Sharpey-Schaeffer first demonstrated the action of a specific hormone; the
effect of an extract of adrenal gland on blood vessels and muscle contraction,
upon injection in normal animals it produced a striking elevation of blood
pressure. Rayleigh and Ramsey identified element argon. Heinrich
Herz found that radio waves travel at speed of light and can be refracted
and polarised.
1895: The German physicist Wilhelm Konrad
Roentgen discovered a new kind of radiation working with the vacuum tube
discharge; This radiation was called X-Rays. Linde develops his
process for liquefying air. Jean Baptiste Perrin proved that cathode rays
are negative particles.Hendrick Lorentz first form of Lorentz
transformation and definition of electrmagnetic force on a charged particle.
Lumière brothers present the cinematograph.
1896: Antoine Henri Becquerel found natural
radioactivity in uranium ore. G. Puccini opera
"La Boheme"
1897: Badische produces synthetic Indigo on a
commercial scale in Germany. Friedrich Paschen verification of Wien's
black body law at long wavelenghts. Kaufman and J.J. Thomson measurement
of electron charge to mass ratio by deflection of cathode rays. Ronald Ross
discovers the malaria parasite in the Anopheles mosquito. H. Rostand "Cyrano de Bergerac. A. Chekhov
"Uncle Vanya". J. Renoir "Baigneuse endormie"
1898: The U.S. defeats Spain in the
Spanish-American War.
1898: Guglielmo Marconi transmission of signal
across the English channel. James Devar obtains liquid hydrogen.
Pierre and Marie Curie separation of radioactive elements radium and
polonium. Ramsey and Travers isolated neon, krypton and xenon. Ernest
Rutherford alpha and beta radiation. Emile
Zola "J'accuse"
1899: Max Planck introduced the concept that
light and all other kinds of electromagnetic radiation, which were considered as
continuous trains of waves, actually consist of individual energy packages with
well defined amounts of energy quanta, proportional to its vibration frequency.
1899: Bayer Aspirin goes on sale to the
public.
1900: Lord Rayleigh,
statistical derivation of short wavelength black body law. Ernest
Rutherford, first determination of a radioactive half-life. Antoine Henri
Becquerel, suggests that beta rays are electrons. Lummer, Pringsheim,
Rubens, Kurlbaum, failure of Wien's black body law at short wavelengths.
Max Planck, light quanta in black body radiation, Planck's black body law
and Planck's constant.Paul Villard, gamma rays. Friedrich Dorn,
element 86, radon. Pyotr Lebedev, radiation pressure measured. John
Herreshoff, of the Nichols Chemical Co., develops the first U.S. contact
method for sulfuric acid production.
1900: First sound movie. First metro
line in Paris. Automobile is welcomed as bringing relief from
pollution. New York City, with 120,000 horses, scrapes up 2.4 million pounds of
manure every day. Sigmund Freud "Die Traumdeutung" (the interpretation of
dreams).
1901: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
(Netherlands, 1852-1911) Discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and of the
osmotic pressure in solutions
Wilhelm K. Roentgen (1845-1923, German)
Discovery of X rays
1901 Emil A. von Behring (1854-1917, German)
For his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria.
1901: Max Planck, determination of Planck's
constant, Boltzmann's constant, Avogadro's number and the charge on electron.
Guglielmo Marconi transmission of Morse signals across the Atlantic.
J.P. Morgan organizes the U.S. Steel Corporation. George
Davis publishes a "Handbook of Chemical Engineering." Oil
Drilling begins in Persia. K. Landsteiner discovery of the blood
groups.
1902: Philipp Lenard, intensity law in
photoelectric effect
Rutherford and Soddy, theory of transmutation by
radiation and first use of the term "atomic energy".
1902: Emil H. Fischer (Germany, 1852-
1919) Synthetic studies in the area of sugar and purine groups
Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928) Dutch and
Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943) Dutch, Influence of magnetism on radiation
phenomena
Sir Ronald Ross (1857-1932, British) For
his work on malaria.
1903: Ernest Rutherford, alpha particles have a
positive charge. Curie and Laborde, radioactive energy released by radium
is large. Johannes Stark, the power of the sun may be due to genesis of
chemical elements. Philipp Lenard, model of atom as two separated
opposite charges. W. Einthoven first electrocardiograph. Orville &
Wilbur Wright fly 59 seconds at 225 m height the first powered
aircraft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.The Ford Motor Company is
founded.
1903: Svante A. Arrhenius (Sweden, 1859- 1927)
Theory of electrolytic dissociation
Antoine H. Becquerel (1852-1908, French),
Pierre Curie (1859-1906, French), Marie Sklodowska Curie
(1867 -1934, Poland/France), Discovery of radioactivity in uranium. Work on
radioactivity based on Becquerel's discovery
Niels Ryberg Finsen (1860-1904, Danish) In
recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus
vulgaris, with concentrated light rays.
1903: Arthur Noyes, a prominent MIT professor,
established a Research Laboratory of Physical Chemistry.
1904: Albert Einstein, energy-frequency
relation of light quanta. Hendrik Lorentz, the completed Lorentz
transformations. Hantaro Nagaoka, planetary model of the atom. Ambrose
Flemming, diode valve and rectifier. Henri Poincare, conjectured
light speed as physical limit. Ernest Rutherford, age of Earth by
radioactvity dating.
1904: Sir William Ramsay (United Kingdom,
1852-1916) Discovery of the indifferent gaseous elements in air (noble gases)
John Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1842-1919,
British), Studies on density of gases; discovery (with Sir William Ramsay) of
argon.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936, Russian)
In recognition of his work on the physiology of disgestion.
1905: Adolf von Baeyer (Germany, 1835 - 1917)
Organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds
Philipp Lenard (1862-1947) Hungarian, Work on
cathode rays
Robert Koch (1843-1910, German) For his
investigations and discoveries in regard to tuberculosis.
1905: Einstein has his "miracle year" as
he formulates the Special Theory of Relativity, establishes the Law of
Mass-Energy Equivalence, creates the Brownian Theory of Motion, and
formulates the Photon Theory of Light. Paul Langevin, atomic
theory of paramagnetism. Percival Lowell, postulates a ninth planet
beyond Neptune. Bragg and Kleeman, alpha-particles have discrete
energies. Hermann Nernst, third law of thermodynamics. Pablo Picasso "Pink period".
1906: Henri Moissan (France, 1852 - 1907)
Investigation and isolation of the element fluorine.
Sir Joseph J. Thomson (1856-1940, British),
Conduction of electricity through gases.
Camillo Golgi (1844-1926) Italian, Santiago
Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934) Spanish, In recognition of their work on the
structure of the nervous system.
1906: Albert Einstein, quantum explanation of
specific heat laws for solids. Joseph Thomson, Thomson scattering of
X-ray photons and number of electrons in an atom. Ernest Rutherford,
alpha particles scatter in air. Lee de Forest, triode valve. Ludwig
Boltzman dies. He has the equation: "S=k ln(W)" carved on his
tombstone in Vienna. Today it is known as the Boltzman Principle, and
provides a statistical relationship between entropy (S) and the number of
ways a system can be configured (W). Fredrerick Hopkins discovers
vitamins. The San Francisco Earthquake kills hundreds and destroys the
city.
1907: Albert Einstein, equivalence principle and gravitational redshift. Urbain and von Welsbach, element 71, lutetium
1907: Eduard Buchner (Germany, 1860 - 1917)
Biochemical studies, discovery of fermentation without cells
Albert A. Michelson (1852-1931) American,
Optical precision instruments and studies made with them
Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922,
French) In recognition of his work regarding the role played by protozoa in
causing diseases.
1908: Hermann Minkowski, geometric unification
of space and time. Hans Geiger, Geiger counter for detecting
radioactivity. Heike Onnes, liquid helium. Geiger, Royds,
Rutherford, identify alpha particles as helium nuclei. Svante Arrhenius
argues that the greenhouse effect from coal and petroleum use is
warming the globe. The General Motors Co. is founded. The first "Model
T" rolls of the Ford assembly line.
1908: Sir Ernest Rutherford (United Kingdom,
1871- 1937) Decay of the elements, chemistry of radioactive substances
Gabriel Lippmann (1845-1921, French), Color
photography based on interference
Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915, German) and Elie
Metchinikoff (1845-1916, French) In recognition of work on immunity.
1908: The American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AIChE) is founded. Cellophane is discovered by a Swiss
chemist named Jacques Brandenberger.Dr. Leo Baekeland ("The Father of the
Plastics Industry") discovers Bakelite in his laboratory in Yonkers, N.Y.
1909: Albert Einstein, particle-wave duality of
photons. Johannes Stark, momentum of photons. Geiger and Marsden,
anomolous scattering of alpha particles on gold foil. Robert Millikan,
measured the charge on the electron.
1909: Wilhelm Ostwald (Germany, 1853 - 1932)
Catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction rates
Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) Italian, Karl
F. Braun (1850-1918) German, development of wireless telegraphy.
Emil Theodor Kocher (1841-1917, Swiss) For
his work on the physiology, pathology, and surgery of the thyroid gland.
1909: Louis Bleriot overflighted the channel
between France-England. R.E. Peary arrived at the North Pole,
1910: Otto Wallach (Germany, 1847 - 1931)
Alicyclic compounds
Johannes D. van der Waals (1837-1923) Dutch,
Laws and formulas for liquids and gases
Albrecht Kossel (1853-1927, German)
In recognition of the contributions to the chemistyr of the cell made through
his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances.
1910: Bakelite production begins at the General
Bakelite Company. The plastic finds widespread use in electric insulation,
electric plugs and sockets, clock bases, iron handles, and jewelry. Synthetic
Ammonia is first produced by the Haber Process in Ludwigshafen,
Germany. A U.S. Rayon plant is constructed by the American Viscose Co.
1910: A.N. Whitehead and B. Russel
published "Principia Mathematica". I. Stravinsky "The Bird of Fire".
1911: Marie Curie (France, Poland, 1867- 1934)
Discovery of radium and polonium
Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928) German, Discoveries
in blackbody radiation
Allvar Gullstrand (1862-1930, Swedish) For
his work on the dioptrics of the eye.
1911: Sir Ernest Rutherford proposes his theory
concerning the atomic nucleus. Victor Hess, high altitude
radiation from space. Heike Kammerlingh-Onnes, superconductivity.
Roald Amudsen at the South Pole. W.
Kandinsky "Composition". M. Gorki "Mother".
1912: Victor Grignard (France, 1871- 1935)
Grignard's reagent
Paul Sabatier (France, 1854 - 1941) Hydrogenation of organic compounds in the presence of finely divided metals
Nils G. Dalen (1869-1937, Swedish), Automatic
gas lighting.
Alexis Carrel (1873-1944,
French) In recognition of his works on vascular suture and the
transplantation of blood vessels and organs.
1912: The Titanic sinks, killing 1513 people,
after striking an iceberg. Bureau of Mines begins first smoke control
study. Joseph Thomson, mass spectrometry and separation of isotopes.
Henrietta Leavitt, period to luminosity relationship for Cepheid variable
stars
Robert Millikan, measurement of Planck's constant. Peter
Debye, derivation of specific heat laws to low temperatures. Charles
Wilson's cloud chamber allows the detection of protons and electrons.
Max Von Laue, X-rays are explained as electromagnetic radiation by
diffraction. Albert Einstein, curvature of space-time. Vesto Melvin
Slipher, observes blue-shift of andromeda galaxy
Gustav Mie,
non-linear field theories. A.L. Wegener Theory of continental drift. T. Mann "Der Tod in Venedig" (Death in Venice).
1913: Alfred Werner (Switzerland, 1866 - 1919)
Bonding relations of atoms in molecules (inorganic chemistry)
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853-1926) Dutch,
Method of liquefying helium
Charles Richet (1853-1935, French) In
recognition of his work on anaphylaxis.
1913: The Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) begins the
thermal cracking of petroleum in "Burton Stills". Henry Ford
started the "production in series" of his Model Ford-T
automobile. Niels Bohr proposes his "solar system" model of the atom and
a quantum thjeory of atomic orbits, radioactivity becomes a nuclear property.
Jean-Baptiste Perrin, theory of size of atoms and molecules. Fajans
and Gohring, element 91, protactinium. Bragg and Bragg, X-ray
diffraction and crystal structure. Hans Geiger, relation of atomic number
to nuclear charge. Johannes Stark, splitting of hydrogen spectral lines
in electric field. Frederick Soddy, the term "isotope".
Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis. I. Pavlov work on conditioned
relexes.
I. Stravinsky "Rite of Spring". Marcel
Proust "A la recherche du temps perdu". George B. Shaw "Pygmalion".
1914: Theodore W. Richards (USA, 1868- 1928)
Determination of atomic weights
Max von Laue (1879-1960, German), Diffraction
of X rays by crystals.
Robert Barany (1876-1936, Austrian)
For his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus.
1914: Robert Goddard begins his rocketry
experiments. James Chadwick, primary beta spectrum is continuous and
shows an energy anomaly. Harry Moseley, used X-rays to confirm the
correspondence between electric charge of nucleus and atomic . Ejnar
Hertzsprung, measured distance to Large Magellanic Cloud using Cepheid
variable stars. Rutherford, da Costa Andrade, gamma rays identified as
hard photons.
1914: World War I begins in Europe. Opening of
the Panama Canal.
1915: Richard Willstätter (Germany, 1872 -
1942) Investigation of plant pigments, particularly of chlorophyll
Sir William H. Bragg
(1862-1942, English), Sir William L. Bragg (1890-1971, English), Work on
crystal structure, using X-ray spectrometer they developed.
1915: Albert Einstein, general
relativity. Prediction of light bending and explanation for perihelion shift of
mercury. David Hilbert, action principle for gravitational field
equations.
1915: The Unit Operations concept is
articulated by Arthur Little. Toxic gas (Chlorine Gas) is used in
World War I at the battle of Ypres. Fritz Haber, primarily known
for his ammonia production process, supervises these deadly "experiments".
Later, his wife pleads with him to stop his work concerning poison gases and
after he refuses she commits suicide. Ford Motor Co. develops a farm
tractor. The Corning Glass Works begins marketing Pyrex glass.
1916: Robert Millikan, verification of energy
law in photoelectric effect. Albert Einstein "General Theory of
Relativity", prediction of gravitational waves, conservation of energy-momentum
in general relativity. Karl Schwarzschild, singular static solution of
gravitational field equations which describes a minimal black hole. Arnold
Sommerfeld, Further atomic quantum numbers and fine structure of spectra,
fine structure constant.
William Walker and Warren K. Lewis, two prominent MIT professors, established a School of Chemical Engineering Practice.
1917: Charles G. Barkla (1877-1944) English,
Discovery of X-ray radiation of elements.
1917: Harlow Shapley, estimates the diameter of
the galaxy as 100000 parsecs. Albert Einstein, introduction of the
cosmological constant and a steady state model of the universe. Vesto Melvin
Slipher, observes that most galaxies have red-shifts. Albert
Einstein, theory of stimulated emission and loss of determinism. Willem
de Sitter, describes a model of a static universe with no matter. Arthur
Eddington, gravitational energy is insufficient to account for the energy
output of stars. Rutherford, Marsden, artificial transmutation, hydrogen
and oxygen from nitrogen. A full-sized plant to produce nitric acid from
ammonia is built by the Chemical Construction Co.
1917: WW1 Russia capitulates. The U.S.
enters World War I. Russian revolution (Lenin).
1918: Fritz Haber (Germany, 1868 - 1934)
Synthesis of ammonia from its elements.
Max Planck (1858-1947, German), Quantum
theory.
1918: Harlow Shapley, determined the size and
shape of our galaxy. Reissner and Nordstrom, solution of Einstein's
equations which describe a charged black hole. Emmy Noether, The
mathematical relationships between symmetry and conservation laws in classical
physics. Francis Aston, mass spectrometer.
1918: Acetone is produced for the British in
Terre Haute, Indiana. Epidemic of Spanish flu causes 40 million deaths in
Europe.
1919: Johannes Stark (1874-1957, German),
Discovery that spectral lines are distorted in an electrical field; Stark effect
Jules Bordet (1870-1961, Belgian)
For his discoveries in regard to immunity.
1919: Ernest Rutherford, existence of the
proton in nucleus. Oliver Lodge, prediction of gravitational lensing.
Francis Aston, hydrogen fusion to helium will release a lot of energy.
Crommelin, Eddington, verification of Einstein's prediction of starlight
deflection during an eclipse. Arthur Eddington, predicts the size of red
gaints using stellar models. Gandi non-obedience campaign against British
colonialism. The League of Nations is founded.
1920: Walther H. Nernst (Germany, 1864- 1941)
Studies on thermodynamics
Charles E. Guillaume (1861-1938, French), Work
on nickel-steel alloys; invented alloy invar.
August Koch (1874-1949, Danish) For
his discovery of the regulation of the motor mechanism of capillaries.
1920's: Cellulose acetate, acrylics
(Lucite & Plexiglas), and polystyrene can finally be produced in
large quantities. The 18th Amendment, prohibiting the sale of
alcoholic beverages, goes into effect. Many cases of blindness and
death result as people mistake wood alcohol (methanol) for
ethanol. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology starts an
independent Department of Chemical Engineering. The Standard Oil Co. (New
Jersey) produces Isopropyl Alcohol, the first commercial petrochemical.
Ponchon and Savarit developed and presented the famous
Enthalpy-Concentration diagram useful to solve distillations calculations.
Ernest Rutherford, prediction of neutron. Anderson, Michelson, Pease, size of star Betelgeuse using stellar interferometry. Harkins, Eddington, Fusion of hydrogen could be the energy source of stars. Shapley and Curtis, The Great Debate over the scale and structure of the universe.
1921: Frederick Soddy (United Kingdom, 1877 -
1956) Chemistry of radioactive substances, occurrence and nature of the isotopes
Albert Einstein (1879-1955, German/American),
Theory of relativity; photoelectric effect.
1921: A 4,500 metric ton stockpile of ammonium
nitrate and ammonium sulfated exploded at a chemical plant in
Oppau, Germany. The blast and subsequent fire killed 600, injured 1500,
and left 7000 people homeless. General Motors researchers discover
tetraethyl lead as an anti-knock gasoline additive. This used
commercially 14 month later.
Theodor Kaluza, unification of electromagnetics and gravity by introducing an extra dimension. Bieler and Chadwick, evidence for a strong nuclear interaction. Stern and Gerlach, measurement of atomic magnetic moments. Charles Bury, electronic structure of elements from their chemistry. Rorschach-test Psychodiagnostics.
1922: Francis W. Aston (United Kingdom, 1877 -
1945) Discovery of a large number of isotopes, mass spectrograph
Niels Bohr (1885-1962, Danish), Studies in
atomic structure and radiations.
Archibald Vivian Hill (1886- ,
British), Otto Meyerhof (1884-1951, German) For his discovery of the
fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of
lactic acid in muscle.
1922: Thomas Midgley uses Tetraethyl lead as an
antiknock additive in gasoline. Albert Calmette and
Camille Guerin develop a tuberculosis vaccine, BCG. The first
human diabetes patient is injected with insulin, mass production
of the "wonder drug" soon follows. Clark S. Robinson published
Elements of Fractional Distillation; later editions were undertaken by
Edwin R. Guilliland. Cornelius Lanczos, transformation of De
Sitter universe to an expanding form. Alexsandr Friedmann, a model of an
expanding - oscillating universe with matter included.
1922: Egypt becomes independent. The Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) established.
J. Joyce "Ulysses". T.S. Eliot "The
Wasteland".
1923: Fritz Pregl (Austria, 1869 -
1930) Microanalysis of organic compounds
Robert A. Millikan (1868-1953,
American), Measurement of electron; photoelectric phenomena.
Frederick Grant Banting (1891-1941,
Canadian), John James Richard Macleod (1876-1935, Scottish) For their
discovery of insulin.
1923: Louis de Broglie demonstrated
that radiation has corpuscular properties, and that matter particles such as
electrons present ondulatory wave characteristics. Compton and Debye,
theory of Compton effect. Arthur Compton, verification of Compton effect
confirms photon as particle. Davisson and Kunsman, electron diffraction.
Coster and von Hevesy, element 72, hafnium. Herman Weyl, De Sitter
universe would predict a linear relation between distance and red-shift.
1924: Karl M.G. Siegbahn
(1886-1978, Swedish), Work in X-ray spectroscopy.
Willem Einthoven (1860-1927,
Dutch) For his discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram.
1924: Edwin Hubble, measured
the distance to other galaxies using Cepheid variables proving that they lie
outside our own. Edward Appleton, ionosphere. Satyendra Bose,
derivation of Planck's law. Bose and Einstein, statistics of photons and
Bose-Einstein condensate. Albert Einstein, statistical physics of quantum
boson molecular gas. Wolfgang Pauli, explanation of Zeeman effect and
two-valuedness of electron state. Enuntiation of the exclusion principle.
Ludwik Siberstein, claims a redshift law for nebulae.
1924: Five refinery workers die violently
insane at Standard Oil Refinery making tetraethyl lead in unsafe
conditions; News reveal that other seven workers had died also for similar
exposure at G.M. and DuPont plants.
1925: Richard A.
Zsigmondy (Germany, Austria, 1865 - 1929) Colloid chemistry
(ultramicroscope)
James Franck (1882-1964, American),
Gustav Hertz (1887-1975, German), Laws governing impact of electrons on
atoms.
1925: Fischer-Tropsch synthesis for
indirect coal liquefaction is developed by the German chemists Franz
Fischer and Hans Tropsch reacting synthesis gas over an iron or
cobalt catalyst at 350 psi and 330° C to produce gasoline, diesel, middle and
heavy oils. The Germans built several plant utilizing this
technology during WWII to provide 15,000 BPD of military fuels. The
AIChE begins accreditation of Chemical Engineering programs. Rubber
antioxidants begin to be used. W.L. McCabe and E.W. Thiele published
their graphic x-y plot, eversince known as the McCabe-Thiele diagram, to
graphically solve distillation calculations.
1925: Walter Elsasser, explanation of
electron diffraction as wave property of matter. Vesto Melvin Slipher,
red-shifts of galaxies suggest a distance/velocity relationship. Robert
Millikan, rediscovery of "cosmic rays" in upper atmosphere. Noddack,
Tacke, Berg, element 75, rhenium. Werner Heisenberg, transition
amplitude theory of quantum mechanics. Born and Jordan, matrix
interpretation of Heisenberg's quantum mechanics. Paul Dirac, q-number
theory of general quantum mechanics. Pascual Jordan, second quantisation.
Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck, electron spin. Enrico Fermi,
statistics of electrons.
1926: Theodor Svedberg (Sweden, 1884 - 1971)
Disperse systems (ultracentrifuge).
Jean B. Perrin (1870-1942, French), Work on
discontinuity of matter; studies on motion and distribution of particles
suspended in liquid.
Johannes Fibiger (1867-1928, Danish) For
his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma.
1926: Erwin Shrödinger developed the
mathematical theory of the atom, based on Bohr atom model and De Broglie electro
wave lenghts, now called "quantum mechanics". Gilbert
Lewis, first use of the term photon. Oskar Klein, Kaluza-Klein
theory. Wolfgang Pauli, derivation of spectrum of hydrogen atom by matrix
methods. Erwin Schroedinger, the particle wave equation, and derivation
of spectrum of hydrogen atom using the wave equation. Eckart, Pauli,
Schroedinger, equivalence of wave equation and matrix mechanics. Max
Born, probability interpretation of wave function. Albert Einstein,
"God does not play dice". Paul Dirac, distinction between bosons and
fermions, symmetry and anti-symmetry of wave function. Dirac, Jordan,
canonical transformation theory for quantum mechanics. Klein, Fock and
Gordon, relativistic wave equation for scalar particles. Ralph
Fowler, suggests that white dwarf stars are explained by the exclusion
principle. Born, Heisenberg, Jordan, model of a quantised field.
Wolfgang Pauli, momentum and position cannot be known simultaneously.
Werner Heisenberg, the uncertainty principle.First TV broadcast.
Du Pont and Commercial Solvents begin synthetic methanol
production in the U.S.
1927: Heinrich O. Wieland (Germany, 1877 -
1957) Constitution of bile acids
Arthur H. Compton (1892-1962, American),
Charles T.R. Wilson (1869-1959, Scottish), Discovery of Compton effect;
shows that electromagnetic radiation behaves like a stream of particles, Wilson
cloud chamber for study of ions.
Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857-1940, Austrian)
For his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria innoculation in the
treatment of dementia paralytica.
1927: Hermann Miller used X-rays to
cause artificial gene mutations in Drosophila. Davisson, Germer,
Thomson, verification of electron diffraction by a crystal. Jan Oort,
observation of galactic rotation and spiral shape of our galaxy. Niels
Bohr, principle of complementarity. Paul Dirac, quantisation of
electromagnetic field, bosonic creation and anihilation operators, virtual
particles, zero point energy. Eugene Wigner, conservation of parity.
Friedrich Hund, quantum tunneling. Heitler and London, quantum
theory can explain chemical bonding. Fritz London, electromagnetic guage
is phase of Schroedinger equation. Georges Lemaitre, models of an
expanding universe. Niels Bohr, Copenhagen interpretation of Quantum
Mechanics. Charles Lindbergh flies across the Atlantic.
1928: Adolf Windaus (Germany, 1876 - 1959)
Study of sterols and their relation with vitamins (vitamin D).
Sir Owen W. Richardson (1879-1959, English),
Law on emission of electrons.
Charles Nicolle (1866-1936, French) For his
work on typhus.
1928: Condon, Gamow, Gurney, alpha
emission is due to quantum tunnelling. Paul Dirac, relativistic equation
of the spin-half electron. Willem Keeson, phase transition in liquid
Helium. Jordan, Pauli, quantum field theory of free fields Rolf
Wideroe, first prototype high energy accelerator. Heisenberg, Weyl,
group representation theory in quantum mechanics. Hubble observes Doppler
effect in galactic radiation.
1929: Hans von Euler-Chelpin (Sweden, Germany,
1873 - 1964), Arthur Harden (United Kingdom, 1861 - 1940) Studies on
fermentation of sugars and enzymes.
Prince Louis Victor de Broglie (1892-1987,
French), Wave character of electrons.
Christiaan Eijkman (1858-1930, Dutch), Sir
Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861-1947, English) For his discovery of the
growth-stimulating vitamins.
1929: quartz crystal clock. Ernest
Lawrence, cyclotron. Robert van de Graaff, Van de Graaff generator.
Heisenberg, Pauli, interacting quantum field theory and divergences.
J. Robert Oppenheimer, divergence of electron self-energy. Paul
Dirac, electron sea and hole theory. Edwin Hubble, first measurement
of Hubble's constant leading to the conclusion that the Universe is expanding.
Bothe, Kolhorster, cosmic rays are charged particles.
1929: Alexander Fleming observes the effect
Penicillin has on bacteria. The breakthrough occurred when he returned to
his laboratory after a four week vacation. An improperly sealed bacteria culture
had been accidentally contaminated by a number of molds and yeasts. One
of the molds had killed the bacteria in the culture. The stock-market
crash on "Black Thursday" brings ruin to thousands of investors. Stalin
collectivizes agriculture, murder of kulaks. Geneva Convention on the
treatment of Prisoners of War.
1930: Hans Fischer (Germany, 1881 - 1945)
Studies on blood and plant pigments, synthesis of hemin
Sir Chandrasekhara V. Raman (1888-1970,
Indian), Work on diffusion of light; Raman effect advanced study of molecular
structure.
Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943, American) For
his discovery of the human blood groups.
1930: Clyde Tombaugh, Pluto. Becker,
Bothe, observed neutral rays later identified as neutrons. Paul
Dirac, systematic canonical quantisation. Arthur Eddington,
Einstein's static universe is unstable. Hartree and Fock, multi-particle
quantum mechanics.
1930's: The Wisconsin duo of Hougen &
Watson stress the importance of thermodynamics in Chemical
Engineering Education. Michigan's Katz, Brown, White,
Kurata, Standing, & Sliepcevich help lay down some foundations in phase
equilibria, heat transfer, momentum transfer, and mass
transfer. Systematic analysis of chemical reactors begun by;
Damkohler in Germany, Van Heerden in Holland, and
Danckwerts and Denbigh in England. They explore mass transfer,
temperature variations, flow patterns, and multiple steady states. The U.S.
suffers through the Great Depression.after the Wall Street Stock exchange
collapse.
1931: Friedrich Bergius (Germany, 1884 -
1949), Carl Bosch (Germany, 1874 - 1940) Development of chemical
high-pressure processes.
Otto Warburg (1883- , German) For his
discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
1931: Dirac, Oppenheimer, Weyl,
prediction of anti-matter. Albert Einstein, discard cosmological
constant, oscillating cosmology. Georges Lemaitre, the primeval atom as
origin of the universe. Isidor Rabi, principle of population inversion.
Wolfgang Pauli, neutrino as explanation for missing energy and spin in
weak nuclear decay. Eugene Wigner, symmetry in quantum mechanics. Paul
Dirac, magnetic monopoles can explain quantum of charge.
1931: Neoprene synthetic rubber is produced by
Du Pont.
1932: Irving Langmuir (USA, 1881 - 1957)
Surface chemistry
Werner K. Heisenberg (1901-76, German),
Creation of quantum mechanics.
Charles Sherrington (1857-1952, British),
Edgar Douglas Adrian (1889- , British) For their discoveries regarding
the function of the neurons.
1932: Raman and Bhagavantam,
Verification that photon is spin one. Einstein, De Sitter, Flat expanding
cosmology. James Chadwick, identified the neutron. Knoll and
Ruska, electron microscope. Carl Anderson, positron from cosmic rays.
Cockroft and Walton, linear proton accelerators to 700 keV and
verification of mass/energy equivalence. Karl Jansky, first radio
astronomy. Dmitri Iwanenko, Neutron as a constituent of nucleus.
Richard Tolman, thermodynamics of oscillating cyclic universe.
Vladimir Fock, Fock space. Urey, Brickwedde, Murphy,
Washburn, deuterium. Werner Heisenberg, Nucleus is composed of
protons and neutrons. Lev Davidovich Landau, proposed existence of
neutron stars. Lawrence and Livingstone build the first cyclotron.
Aldous Huxley "The Brave New World".
1933 Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961, Austrian),
Paul A.M. Dirac (1902-84, English), New forms of atomic theory.
Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945, American)
For his discoveries concerning the function of the chromosome in the
transmission of heredity.
1933: Paul Ehrenfest, theory of second
order phase transitions. Blackett and Occhialini, electron-positron
creation and annihilation. Esterman, Frisch and Stern, measurement of
proton magnetic moment. Baade and Zwicky, collapse of a white dwarf may
set off a supernova and leave a neutron star. Fritz Zwicky, dark matter
in galactic clusters. Arthur Milne, cosmological principle of large scale
homogeneity. Harlow Shapley, observation of structure in galaxy
distribution.
1933: First edition published of Heat
Transmission by William H. McAdams. The Imperial Chemical
Industries in England discover Polyethylene. Du Pont begins
production of Rayon tire cord fabrics. Adolf Hitler comes to power
in Germany.
1934: Harold C. Urey (USA, 1893-1981)
Discovery of heavy hydrogen (deuterium).
George Hoyt Whipple (1878- , American),
George Richards Minot (1885-1950, American), William Parry Murphy
(1892- , American) For their discoveries concerning liver therapy against
anemias.
1934: Pavel Cherenkov, Cherenkov
electromagnetic radiation. Chadwick and Goldhaber, precise measurement of
neutron mass. Chadwick and Goldhaber, measurement of nuclear force.
Francis Perrin, neutrino is massless. Grote Reber, discrete radio
source in Cygnus. Joliot and Curie-Joliot, induced radioactivity.
Enrico Fermi, Fermi theory of weak interaction and beta decay.
Esterman and Stern, magnetic moment of neutron. Fermi and Hahn,
fission observed. Paul Dirac, polarisation of the vacuum and more
divergence in QED.
1935: Frédéric Joliot (France, 1900-1958),
Irène Joliot-Curie (France, 1897-1956) Syntheses of new radioactive
elements (artificial radioactivity)
Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974, English),
Discovery of the neutron.
Hans Spemann (1869-1941, German) For his
discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development.
1935: Yukawa, Stueckelberg, theory of
strong nuclear force and the pi-meson. J. Robert Oppenheimer, spin
statistics. Enrico Fermi, hypothesis of transuranic elements.
Robertson, Walker, most general homogenious isotropic universe.
Einstein, Podolsky, Rosen, EPR Paradox of non-locality in quantum
mechanics. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, calculation of mass limit for
stellar collapse of a white dwarf star. Erwin Schroedinger, quantum cat
paradox. Robert Watson-Watt, radar.
1935: Wallace H. Carothers, of Du Pont,
discovers Nylon. G. Domagk discovery of sulphonamides.
1936: Peter J. W. Debye (Germany, Netherlands,
1884-1966) Studies on dipole moments and the diffraction of X rays and electron
beams by gases
Victor F. Hess (1883-1964, American), Carl
D. Anderson (1905-91, American), Discovery of cosmic rays. Discovery of the
positron.
Henry Dale (1875- , British), Otto Loewi
(1873-1961, Born German/Naturalized American) For their discoveries
relating to the chemical transmission of nerve impulses.
1936: Niels Bohr, compound nucleus.
Anderson and Neddermeyer, muon in cosmic rays. Leon
Brillouin, theory of wave guides. Breit and Coll, isotopic spin.
Alan Turing, computability.
1936: Rohm & Haas begins marketing
Methyl Methacrylate plastics (PMMA). The Houdry Process is used in
the Catalytic Cracking of Petroleum.
1936: F. Franco and the Spanish Civil War.
John Maynard Keynes publishes "General Theory of Employment, Interest and
Money". Purges in the Soviet Union.
1937: Sir Walter N. Haworth (United Kingdom,
1883-1950) Studies on carbohydrates and vitamin C. Paul Karrer
(Switzerland, 1889-1971) Studies on carotenoids and flavins and vitamins A and
B2
Clinton J. Davisson (1881-1958, American),
Sir George P. Thomson (1892-1975, English), Diffraction of electrons by
crystals.
Albert von Szent-Györgyi (1893- , Hungarian)
For his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes,
with especial reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid.
1937: Pyotr Kapitza, superfluidity of
helium II, Perrier and Segre, element 37, technetium, first element made
artifically. Majorana, symmetric theory of electron and positron.
Julian Schwinger, Neutron spin is half. Blau, Wambacher,
photographic emulsion as particle detector. Bloch and Nordsieck, operator
normal ordering. John Wheeler, S-matrix theory. H.H. Aiken plan
for electronic calculator. Hindenburg Zeppelin airship crashes in flames
in New York. Pablo Picasso "Guernica"
1937: Polystyrene is offered to consumers in
the U.S. by Dow Chemical. It finds uses in radios, clock cases,
electrical equipment, and wall tiles.
1938 :Richard Kuhn (Germany, 1900-1967)
Studies on carotenoids and vitamins.
Enrico Fermi (1901-1954, American), Discovery
of radioactive elements.
Corneille Heymans (1892- , Belgian)
For his discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mecahnisms in
the regulation of respiration.
1938: Ruben and Kamen working with
oxygen isotope O18 marked demonstrated that the oxygen emitted by
plants is the one obtained from water and not from CO2. They
discovered later the carbon 14 which permited to followup the initial steps in
the photosynthesis reactions. Oppenheimer and Serber, there is an upper
mass limit for stability of neutron stars. Bethe, Critchfield, von
Weizsacker, stars are powered by nuclear fusion CN-cycle. Isador
Rabi, Magnetic Resonance. O. Hahn, L. Meitner and F. Strassman,
fission induced with neutrons, split the nucleus of the atom. Oskar
Klein, new field equations from higher dimensional Kaluza-Klein theory.
Fritz Zwicky, clusters of galaxies. Ernest Stueckelberg, suggests
baryon number conservation. Hendrick Kramers, mass renormalisation.
Frisch and Meitner, theory of uranium fission.
1939: World War II begins in Europe as German
troops invade Poland. Hitler signs "non-agression" pact with
Stalin. Russian troops invade Finland.
1939: Adolf F. J. Butenandt (Germany,
1903-1995) Studies on sexual hormones, Leopold Ruzicka (Switzerland,
1887-1976) Studies on polymethylenes and higher terpenes.
Ernest O. Lawrence (1901-58, American),
Invention of cyclotron.
Gerhard Domagk (1895-1964, German) For his
discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil.
1939: Enrico Fermi, Otto Hahn, F. Strassman, Lisa
Meitner, and Otto Frish discover Nuclear Fission. Joliot and
Curie-Joliot, Szilard, theory of nuclear chain reaction. Oppenheimer and
Snyder, a collapsing neutron star will form a black hole. Bohr, Wheeler,
Khariton, Zel'dovich ..., theory of U235 fission and chain reaction.
Bloch and Alvarez, measurement of the neutron magnetic moment. Rossi,
Van Norman, Hilbery, Muon decay. Teller, Szilard, Einstein, warning
letter to Roosevelt. Peierls and Frisch, critical mass and theory of
A-Bomb. Marguerite Perey, element 87, francium. Centre National de la
Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) is founded in France. Nylon used for
women's stockings. Sigmund Freud, father of psychoanlysis dies.
1940's: Polyethylene (electrical insulation and
food packaging), silicones (lubricants, protective coatings, and
high-temperature electronic insulation), and epoxy (a very strong
adhesive) are developed. Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) develops Catalytic
Reforming to produce higher octane gasoline and create toluene for
TNT. Higher octane gasoline helped the American and British fighters
outperform their German counterparts. First tire from synthetic
rubber produced in U.S. MacMillan, Abelson, element 93, neptunium,
first transuranian elements. Corson, MacKenzie, Segre, element 85,
astatine synthesised.
1941: MacMillan, Kennedy, Seaborg, Wahl,
element 94, plutonium, second transuranian elements. Lev Davidovich
Landau, theory of superfluids. Rossi and Hall, Muon decay used to
verify relativistic time dilation. Mckellar and Adams, Cosmic cyanogen
observed to be at temperature of CBR, but significance not recognised.
"Manhatten Project" is founded to develop atomic bomb.
1941: The United States enters World War
II, after Japan attack in Pearl Harbor.
1941: Styrene-Butadiene Rubber first produced
in the U.S.
1942: Polyester resins introduced.
1942: Enrico Fermi, and a team of scientists,
operated the first man-made nuclear reactor under a football field
at the University of Chicago. A cadmium control rod was suspended
over the pile with a rope. Grote Reber, radio map of the sky.
Albert Camus "The Stranger".
1943: George de Hevesy (Hungary, 1885-1966)
Application of isotopes as indicators in the investigation chemical processes
Otto Stern (1888-1969, American), For
measuring the magnetic moment of a proton.
1943: Ernest Stueckelberg,
renormalisation of QED. Sakata, Inoue, theory of pion decay to muons.
1943: U.S. Government owned synthetic rubber
plants help boost war time production. DDT, a powerful pesticide, first produced
in the U.S. WWII: Battle of Stalingrad stops German invasion of Soviet
Union.
1943: Salvador Dali, oil painting of "The Born of Geopoliticus".
1944: Otto Hahn (Germany, 1879-1968) Discovery
of the nuclear fission of atoms
Isidor I. Rabi (1898-1988, American),
Resonance method of recording magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.
1944: Teflon, Tetrafluoroethelene resins,
marketed by Du Pont.
1944: Selman Waksman discovers
streptomycin, the first effective anti-tuberculous drug. Lars
Onsager, general theory of phase transitions. Seaborg, James, Morgan,
Ghiorso, Thompson, elements 95; americium, 96; curium. Leprince-Ringuet
and Lheritier, the K+ found in cosmic rays.WWII: Allied invasion of
Normandy, the first ballistic missile V2 used in war by German Wehrmacht. Yalta
Conference settles Europe division between the Allies.
1945: Artturi I. Virtanen (Finland, 1895-1973)
Discoveries in the area of agricultural and food chemistry, method of
preservation of fodder
Wolfgang Pauli (1900-58, Austrian), Exclusion
principle of electrons.
1945: World War II Yalta Conference settles the
post-war division of Europe. Robert Oppenheimer et al, atomic
bomb. U.S. detonate the Atomic Bomb over Hiroshima, and
Nagasaki, Japan. United Nations founded.
1945: After World War II, the U.S. broke Germany's
enormous I.G. Farben into; BASF, Bayer, and Hoechst.
First electronic computer ENIAC
1946: John H. Northrop (USA, 1891-1987),
Wendell M. Stanley (USA, 1904-1971) Preparation of enzymes and virus
proteins in pure form. James B. Sumner (USA, 1887-1955) Crystallizability
of enzymes.
Percy W. Bridgman (1882-1961, American),
Discoveries in high-pressure physics.
1946: James Hey Discovery of radio
source Cygnus A. George Gamow Cold big bang model. Bloch and Purcell
Nuclear magnetic resonance. UNESCO is founded. Iron Curtain
separates Eastern and Western Europe as Cold War intensifies.
Jean Paul Sartre "Existentialism and
Humanism".
1947: Sir Robert Robinson (United Kingdom,
1886-1975) Studies on alkaloids
Sir Edward Appleton
(1892-1965, English), For studies of Earth's ionosphere and discovery of the
Appleton layer.
1947: Claude Shannon, information
theory. Conversi, Pancini, Piccioni, indication that the muon is not the
mediator of the strong force. Hartmut Kallman, scintillation counter.
Denis Gabor, theory of holograms. Powell, Occhialini, negative
pion found. Willis Lamb, fine structure of hydrogen spectrum, the Lamb
shift. Hans Bethe, renormalisation of Lamb shift calculation. Kusch
and Folley, measurement of the anomolous magnetic moment of the electron.
Hartland Snyder, quantised space-time.
1947: A barge, the Grandcamp, loaded with
fertilizer grade ammonium nitrate catches fire and explodes
destroying a nearby city and killing 576 in what would later be known as the
"Texas City Disaster". The formation of hydrocarbons from synthetic gas
by the Fischer-Tropsch Process in USA at the US Bureau of Mines. Los
Angeles Air Pollution Control District is formed. The first off shore oil is
drilled. Christian Dior and the "New Look". Marshall Plan to rebuild
Europe. UN plan for the partitioning of Palestine.
1948: Arne W. K. Tiselius (Sweden, 1902-1971)
Analysis by means of electrophoresis and adsorption, discoveries about serum
proteins
Patrick M.S. Blackett (1897-1974, English), Cosmic-ray discoveries; improvement of Wilson cloud chamber
1948: Tomonaga, Schwinger, Feynman,
renormalisation of QED. Alpher, Bethe and Gamow, explain nucleosynthesis
in hot big bang. Alpher and Herman, prediction of cosmic background
radiation. Bondi, Gold, Hoyle, steady state theory of the universe.
Goldhaber and Goldhaber, experimental proof that beta particles are
electrons. Richard Feynman, path integral approach to quantum theory.
Bardeen, Brattain, Shockley, semi-conductors and transistors. Snell
and Miller, Decay of the neutron. Freeman Dyson, Equivalence of
Feynman and Schwinger-Tomonaga QED. Hendrik Casimir, Theory of Casimir
force.
1948: A deadly smog settled over the and small
steel mill town of Donora, PA. The noxious air killed 19 caused thousands to
become ill. Berlin blockade and the begining of the Cold War. Gandhi
murdered in India. World Health Organization (WHO) formed.
1949: William F. Giauque (USA, 1895-1982)
Contributions to chemical thermodynamics, properties at extremely low
temperatures (adiabatic demagnetization)
Hideki Yukawa (1907-81, Japanese), Prediction
of existence of the meson.
1949: Leighton, Anderson, Seriff, Muon
is spin half. Seaborg, Ghiorso, Thompson, element 97, berkelium.
Haxel, Jensen, Mayer, Suess, nuclear shell model. Fred Hoyle,
first use of the term "big bang".
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is formed. Mao Zedong comes to power in China.
George Orwell "Nineteen Eighty-Four"
1950: Kurt Alder (Germany,
1902-1958)
Otto P. H. Diels (Germany, 1876-1954) Development of the diene synthesis
Cecil F. Powell (1903-69) English, Meson discoveries; method of photographing nuclear processes.
1950: Paul Dirac, first suggestion of
string theory. Seaborg, Ghiorso, Street, Thompson, element 98,
californium. Jan Oort, theory of comet origins. Bjorklund, Crandall,
Moyer, York, Neutral pion. Albert Einstein, Einstein's failed unified
theory.
1950's: Television enters American homes.
1950: The Korean War begins.
1950's & 1960's: Minnesota's Mathematical Marvel
of Amundson & Aris stress the importance of mathematical
modeling in Chemical Reactor Engineering. Their work helps encourage
greater mathematical competence in Chemical Engineering Education. Wisconsin's
Triumvirate of Bird, Stuart, & Lightfoot reveal the unifying concepts
of mass, momentum, and energy transport. Their textbook, "Transport
Phenomena" continues to be a phenomenon in Chemical Engineering
Education. Benzene produced from petroleum.
1951: Edwin M. McMillan (USA, *1907), Glenn
Th. Seaborg (USA, *1912) Discoveries in the chemistry of transuranium
elements.
Sir John D. Cockcroft (1897-1967, English),
Ernest T.S. Walton (born 1903 -, Irish), Pioneer work in transmutation of
atomic nuclei.
1951: The first Fusion Bomb tested. Smith
and Baade, identify a radio galaxy.
1952: Archer J. P. Martin (United Kingdom,
*1910), Richard L. M. Synge (United Kingdom, 1914-1994) Invention
of distribution chromatography.
Felix Bloch (1905-83, American), Edward M.
Purcell (born 1912 American), Methods of measuring magnetic fields of atomic
nuclei.
1952: Courant, Livingston, Snyder, Strong focusing principle for particle accelerators. Alvarez, Glaser, bubble chamber. Seaborg et al, elements 99; einsteinium, 100; fermium. Walter Baade, resolves confusion over two different types of Cepheid variable stars. Edward Teller et al, hydrogen bomb.
1952: Du Pont introduces Mylar polyester
film.
1953: Hermann Staudinger (Germany, 1881-1965)
Discoveries in the area of macromolecular chemistry.
Frits Zernike (1888-1966, Dutch),
Phase-contrast microscope and method.
1953: Gell-Mann and Nishijima, strangeness. Gerard de Vaucouleurs, galaxy superclusters and large scale inhomogenieties. Charles Townes, maser. Alpher, Herman, Follin, first recognition of the horizon problem in cosmology.
1953: Francis Crick solved the
three-dimensional structure of DNA molecule disclosed by James
Watson and discovered in 1950 by Erwin Chargaff. Production of
soap exceeded by synthetic detergents.
1954: Linus
Carl Pauling (USA, 1901-1994) Studies on the nature of the chemical bond
(molecular structure of proteins)
Max Born (1882-1970,
British), Walther Bothe (1891-1957, German), Contributions to
quantum mechanics. Coincidence method of studying cosmic radiation.
1954: Polyisoprene rubber developed.
1954: Soviet troops invade Budapest to
destroy oposition. Franco-Algerian war (1954-1962). French defeat in Vietnam
Dien Bien Phu.
1955: Vincent du Vigneaud (USA, 1901-1978)
Synthesis of a polypeptide hormone.
Willis E. Lamb, Jr. (1913 -, American),
Polykarp Kusch ( 1911 -, American), Discoveries concerning structure of
hydrogen spectrum. Determination of magnetic moment of the electron.
1955: caesium atomic clock. Martin Ryle,
radio telescope interferometry. John Wheeler, describes the space-time
foam at the Planck scale. Ilya Prigogine, thermodynamics of irreversible
processes. Carl von Weizsacker, Multiple Quantisation and ur-theory.
Seaborg et al, element 101, mendelevium. Chamberlain, Segre and
Wiegand anti-proton. General Electric produces synthetic
diamond.
1956: Sir Cyril N. Hinshelwood (United
Kingdom, 1897-1967), Nikolai N. Semjonow (Soviet Union, 1896-1986)
Mechanisms of chemical reactions.
William Shockley (1910-89,
American), John Bardeen (1908-91, American), Walter H. Brattain
(1902-87, American), Development of the transistor effect.
1956: Reines and Cowan, neutrino
detection. Cork, Lambertson, Piccioni, Wenzel, evidence for anti-neutron.
Block, Lee and Yang, weak interaction could violate parity. Reines and
Cowan, anti-neutrino detection. Erwin Muller, field ion microscope
and first images of individual atoms. Cook, Lambertson, Piconi, Wentzel,
anti-neutron.
1956: Another killer smog in London; 750 die.
Suez Canal crisis.
1957 Sir Alexander R. Todd (United Kingdom,
*1907) Studies on nucleotides and their coenzymes.
Chen Ning Yang (1922 -, Chinese), Tsung-Dao
Lee (1926 -, Chinese), Investigation of parity laws.
1957: Burbidge, Burbidge, Hoyle, Fowler
Formation of light elements in stars. Friedman, Lederman, Telegdi, Wu,
parity violation in weak decays. Bardeen, Cooper, Schrieffer, BCS theory
of superconductivity.Nobelium discovery. Hugh Everett, Many worlds
interpretation of quantum mechanics. Feynman, Gell-Mann, Marshak,
Sudarshan, V-A theory of weak interactions. John Wheeler, pregeometry
and space-time foam.
The Russians launch Sputnik I, the first
man-made satellite.
1957: General Electric develops
polycarbonate plastics.
1958: Frederick Sanger (United Kingdom, *1918)
Structure of proteins, especially of insulin
Pavel A. Cherenkov (1904-90, Soviet), Ilya
M. Frank (1908-90, Soviet), Igor E. Tamm (1895-1971, Soviet),
Discovery and interpretation of Cherenkov radiation effect.
1958: Townes and Schawlow, theory of
laser. Martin Ryle, evidence for evolution of distant cosmological radio
sources. Seaborg et al, element 102, nobelium. Gary Feinberg,
predicts that muon neutrino is distinct from electron neutrino. David
Finkelstein, resolves the nature of the black hole event horizon.
1959: Jaroslav Heyrovský (Czechoslovakia,
1890-1967) Polarography.
Emilio Segre (1905-89,
American), Owen Chamberlain (born 1920, American), Discovery of the
antiproton.
1959: MIT, radar echo from Venus.
Ramsey, Kleppner, Goldenberg, hydrogen maser atomic clock.
1959: The computer control of chemical
processes gains credibility. Large scale Hydrogen plant, for use as
rocket fuel, completed by Air Products. Fidel Castro and the Cuban
Revolution.
1960: Willard F. Libby (USA, 1908-1980)
Application of carbon 14 for age determinations (radiocarbon dating)
Donald A. Glaser (born 1926
-, American), Development of bubble chammber for photographing atomic particles.
1960: Computer network Internet is
born. Theodore Maiman builds the first rubi LASER based
upon the proposal of Arthur Schawlow. R. B. Woodward synthesized
the chlorophyl molecule. Martin Kruskal, new coordinates to study
Schwarzschild black hole. Eugene Wigner, the unreasonable effectiveness
of mathematics in natural science. Pound and Rebka, measurement of
gravitational red-shift. Matthews and Sandage, optical identification of
a quasar.
1961: Melvin Calvin (USA, *1911) Studies on
the assimilation of carbonic acid by plants (photosynthesis)
Robert Hofstadter (1915-90, American),
Rudolf L. Mossbauer (born 1929 -, German), Studies in structure of proton
and neutron. Work on resonance absorption of gamma rays.
1961: Sheldon Glashow, introduces
neutral intermediate boson of electro-weak interactions. Jeoffrey
Goldstone, Theory of massless particles in spontaneous symmetry breaking
(Goldstone boson). Gell-Mann and Ne'eman, The eightfold way, SU(3) octet
symmetry of hadrons. Robert Dicke, Weak anthropic principle. Robert
Hofstadter, necleons have an internal structure. Ghiorso, Sikkeland,
Larsh, Latimer, element 103, lawrencium. Edward Lorenz, chaos theory.
Yuri Gagarin, first man in space. Geoffrey Chew, nuclear democracy
and the bootstrap model. Tulio Regge, simplicial lattice general
relativity. Alan Shepard becomes the first American into space.
Berlin Wall separates West and East Berlin. US Pres. John F.
Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs fiasco. Yuri Gagarin and the first manned
space flight.
1962 :John Cowdery Kendrew (United Kingdom,
*1917), Max Ferdinand Perutz (United Kingdom, Austria, *1914) Studies on
the structures of globulin proteins.
Lev D. Landau (1908-68,
Soviet), Experiments with liquid helium.
1962: Gell-Mann and Ne'eman, Prediction
of Omega minus particle. Leith and Upatnieks, first hologram.
Giacconi, Gursky, Paolini, Rossi, detection of cosmic X-rays. Brian
Josephson, theory of Jesephson effect. Lederman, Steinberger,
Schwartz, evidence for more than one type of neutrino. Hogarth,
proposes relation between cosmological and thermodynamic arrows of time.
Thomas Gold, time-symmetric universe. Benoit Mandelbrot, fractal
images.
1962: End of French-Algerian war, Algeria
becomes independent. Cuban missile crisis, the Russians remove their
missiles from Cuba. Another London smog; 1,000 die.
1962: Rachel Carson's book, "Silent
Spring", presents an emotional plea for protecting human health and the
environment from chemical pesticides.
A. Solzhenitsyn "One Day in the Life of Ivan
Denisovitch" describing Gulag system in Russia. Mandela jailed for
sabotage in South Africa.
1963: Giulio Natta (Italy, 1903-1979), Karl
Ziegler (Germany, 1898-1973) Chemistry and technology of high polymers.
Eugene P. Wigner (born 1902 -, Hungarian),
Maria G. Mayer (1906-72, American), J. Hans D. Jensen (1907-73,
German), Research on structure of the atom and its nucleus.
1963: Samios et al, Baryon Omega minus
found. Roy Kerr, solution for a rotating black hole. Schmidt,
Greensite, Sandage, quasars are distant. President John F. Kennedy
murdered.
1964: Dorothy Crowfoot-Hodgkin (United
Kingdom, *1910) Structure determination of biologically important substances by
means of X rays
Charles H. Townes (1915 -, American),
Nikolai G. Basov (1922 -, Soviet), Aleksandr M. Prokhorov (1916 -,
Soviet), Research on laser and maser beams.
1964: Brout, Englert, Higgs, Higgs
mechanism of symmetry breaking. Hoyle, Taylor, Zeldovich, big bang
nucleosynthesis of helium. Steven Weinberg, baryon number is probably not
conserved. Gell-Mann, Zweig, quark theory of hadrons. Murray
Gell-Mann, current algebra. Roger Penrose, black holes must contain
singularities. Ginzburg, Doroshkevich, Novikov, Zel'dovich, black holes
have no hair. Salpeter and Zel'dovich, black holes power quasars and
radio galaxies. John Bell, a quantum inequality which limits the
possibilities for local hidden variable theories.
John Wheeler,
foundations of canonical formulism for gravity. soviets, element 104,
rutherfordium
1965: Robert Burns Woodward (USA, 1917 - 1979)
Syntheses of natural products.
Richard P. Feynman (1918-88, American),
Julian S. Schwinger (born 1918, American,) Shin-Ichiro Tomonaga
(1906-79, Japanese), Work on defining basic theories of quantum
electrodynamics.
1965: Greenberg, Han, Nambu, SU(3)
colour symmetry to explain statistics of quark model. Martin Kruskal,
Numerical studies of solitons. Penzias and Wilson, detection of the
cosmic background radiation. Dicke, Peebles, Roll, Wilkinson,
indentification of cosmic background radiation. Rees and Sciama, quasars
were more numerable in the past.
1965: American Troops enter the Vietnam
War.
1965: Bottles made from polyvinyl
chloride gain market share.
1966: Robert S. Mulliken (USA, 1896-1986)
Studies on chemical bonds and the electron structure of molecules by means of
the orbital method
Alfred Kastler (1902-84, French), Work on
optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms.
1966: Fist attempt to control organic solvent
emissions made by Los Angeles' Rule 66. Cultural Revolution start in China.
The Beatles "Yesterday"
1967: Manfred Eigen (Germany, *1927) George
Porter (United Kingdom, *1920) and Ronald G. W. Norrish (United
Kingdom, 1897-1978) Investigations of extremely fast chemical reactions
Hans A. Bethe (born 1906 American), Studies in
energy production of stars.
1967: Steven Weinberg, electro-weak
unification. Bell and Hewish, pulsars. Irwin Shapiro, radar
measurment of relativistic time delays to Mercury. John Wheeler,
introduced the term "black hole". Andrei Sakharov, three criteria for
cosmological abundance of matter over anti-matter. soviets,
element 105, dubnium.
Christiaan Barnard perform first heart transplant surgery.
1968: Lars Onsager (USA, Norway, 1903-1976)
Studies on the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.
Luis W. Alvarez (1911-88, American), Study and
detection of subatomic particles.
1968: Joseph Weber, first attempt at a
gravitational wave detector. Brandon Carter, Strong anthropic principle.
Gabriele Veneziano, Dual resonance model for strong interaction,
beginning of string theory. James Bjorken, theory of scaling behavior in
deep inelastic scattering. Richard Feynman, scaling and parton model of
nucleons.
1968: Consumption of man-made fibers tops
natural fibers in U.S.
1968: French students "May Revolution"
generates slogans as the famous: "Forbidden to forbid" and "the
imagination to power". Murder of Martin Luther King. Prague
spring, political liberalization and Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.
1969: Odd Hassel (Norway, 1897-1981), Derek
H. Barton (United Kingdom, *1918) Development of the concept of
conformation.
Murray Gell-Mann (born 1929
American), Discoveries regarding subatomic particles.
1969: Kendall, Friedman, Taylor Deep
inelastic scattering experiments find structure inside protons. Ellis,
Hawking and Penrose, singularity theorems for the big bang. Roger
Penrose, conjectures that singularities are hidden by cosmic censorship.
Donald Lynden-Bell, black hole at the centre of galactic nuclei.
Raymond Davis, solar neutrino detector. Charles Misner,
cosmological horizon problem revisited. Robert Dicke, cosmological
flatness problem. Neil Armstrong, first man on the moon, first attempts
to verify solar deflection of radio waves from quasars. David
Finkelstein, Space-time code.
1969: The Apollo 11 mission succeeds by
landing Man on the Moon. The horribly polluted Cuyahoga
River, running through Cleveland, actually caught on fire.
1969: Spring revolution in Praga is smashed by
Soviet Tanks.
1970: Luis F. Leloir (Argentina, *1906)
Discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of
carbohydrates
Hannes Alfven (born 1908 Swedish), Louis
Neel (born 1904 French), Studies of plasmas (gases) in magnetic fields. Work
on antiferromagnetism and ferromagnetism.
1970: Simon Van der Meer, stochastic
cooling for particle beams. Stephen Hawking, the surface area of a black
holes event horizon always increases. CAT computerizes axial tomography
machine.
1970: America holds its first "Earth Day" on
April 22. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is formed. It
consists of 6,000 employees and has an annual budget of $1.3 billion. Congress
passes the "Clean Air Act" establishing national air quality standards.
America's heavy dependence on foreign oil results in an Energy Crisis as
the Arabs stop shipment to countries which supported Israel in the
Arab-Israeli Wars.
1971: Gerhard Herzberg (Canada, *1904)
Electron structure and geometry of molecules, particularly of free radicals
(molecular spectroscopy)
Dennis Gabor (1900-79, English) (Born in
Budapest, Hungary), Invention of holography.
1971: Kenneth Wilson, the operator
product expansion and the renormalisation group for the strong force.
Dimopolous, Fayet, Gol'fand, Lichtman Supersymmetry. Roger
Penrose, spin networks. Bolton, Murdin, Webster Cygnus X-1 identified
as black hole candidate. Intel develops first microprocessor chip.
1971: Barry Commoner's "The Closing Circle: Nature, Man & Technology" is
published.
1972: Christian B. Anfinsen (USA, *1916)
Studies on ribonuclease
Stanford Moore (USA, 1913-1982), William H. Stein (USA, 1911-1980) Studies on the active center of ribonuclease.
John Bardeen (1908-91) American, Leon N.
Cooper (born 1930) American, John R. Schrieffer (born 1931) American,
Theory of superconductivity.
1972: Jacob Bekenstein, black hole entropy.
Fritsch, Gell-Mann, Bardeen , Quantum Chromodynamics.
Kirzhnits, Linde, Electro-Weak phase transition. Roger Penrose,
Twistors. Salam, Pati, SU(4)xSU(4) unification and proton decay. Tom
Bolton Cygnus X-1 identified as black hole.
1972: Congress passes the "Clean Water Act" to
confront water pollution. The pesticide DDT banned in the US. Pres. Richard
Nixon orders bombings of Hanoi, Vietnam.
1972: The Club of Rome publishes "The Limits
to Growth".
1973: Ernst Otto Fischer (Germany, *1918),
Geoffrey Wilkinson (United Kingdom, *1921) Chemistry of metal-organic
sandwich compounds.
Leo Esaki (born 1925, Japanese), Ivar
Giaever (born 1929, American), Brian D. Josephson (born 1940,
British), Theories on tunneling phenomena in solids, particularly in
semiconductors and superconductors.
1973: Wess and Zumino, space-time
supersymmetry. Ostriker and Peebles, dark matter in galaxies.
CERN, Evidence of weak neutral currents. Klebesadel, Strong,
Olson, Gamma Ray Bursts are cosmic. Edward Tyron, the universe as a
quantum fluctuation.
1973: Oil crisis, oil producing countries form OPEC.
Watergate scandal breaks out. Paris Peace Accords on Vietnam. The last
American Troops leave Vietnam. Military coup in Chile by Gen.
Pinochet, president Allende killed.
1973: Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer perform the
first experiment in Genetic Engineering.
1973: Construction on New York's "World Trade
Center" and Chicago's "Sears Tower" are completed.
1974 :Paul J. Flory (USA, 1910-1985) Physical
chemistry of macromolecules
Sir Martin Ryle (1918-84) British, Anthony Hewish (born 1924) British, Pioneering research in radioastrophysics.
1974: Yoneya, Scherk, Schwarz
interpretation of string theory as a theory of gravity. Georgi and
Glashow, SU(5) as Grand Unified Theory and prediction of proton decay.
Stephen Hawking, black hole radiation and thermodynamics. soviets
and americans, element 106, seaborgium.
1974: Richard Nixon resigns from office after
Watergate scandal.
Mid 1970's: Toxic releases including: the
Kepone tragedy at Hopewell, VA; the PCB contamination of
the Hudson River; and the PBB poisoning of cows in Michigan keep
environment issues in the headlines.
1975: John W. Cornforth
(United Kingdom, *1917) Stereochemistry of enzyme catalysis reactions.
Vladimir Prelog (Switzerland, Yugoslavia, 1906-1998) Studies on the
stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions.
James Rainwater (1917-86) American, Aage N.
Bohr (born 1922) Danish, Ben Roy Mottelson (born 1926) Danish,
Research on the inner structure of the atom.
1975: First edition of "Making Peace with the Planet" by Barry Commoner
is published.
1975: Catalytic converters are introduced in
many automobiles to meet emissions standards established by the U.S. government.
Du Pont recognizes the contributions of Nathaniel C. Wyeth. He was
responsible for introducing the plastic soda bottles made from polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) which quickly replaced their glass predecessors.
1975: Civil war in Lebanon. The Khmer Rouge start
"ruralization" in Cambodia killing one fifth of the population. Indira Gandhi
declares state of emergency in India and rule by decree. Cuban troops land in
Angola.
1976: William N. Lipscomb (USA, *1919)
Structure of boranes
Burton Richter (born 1931) American, Samuel
Chao Chung Ting (born 1936) American, Discovery of the subatomic J particle,
which opened a new field of research.
1976: Scherk, Gliozzi, Olive
Supersymmetric string theory Deser, Freedman, Van Nieuwenhuizen, Ferrara,
Zumino Supergravity
Levine and Vessot precision test of
gravitational time dilation on rocket. Gerard 't Hooft the instantons
solution of the U(1) anomaly
soviets element 107, bohrium
1976: Seymour Cray, of Cray Research, makes the
Cray-1 Supercomputer.
1976: The U.S. National Academy of Sciences reports
that chlorofluorocarbons (Freons) can deplete the Ozone Layer. The
U.S. bans the use of chloroform in drugs and cosmetics. U.S.
Congress passes the "Toxic Substances Control Act" regulating toxic
chemicals.
1976: Viking 1 lands on Mars, becoming
the first man-made object to ever soft-land on another planet. Mao Zedong
dies and is succeeded by Deng Xiaoping in China . Gang of Four arrested and
convicted in China
1977: Ilya Prigogine (Belgium, *1917)
Contributions to the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, particularly to
the theory of dissipative structures
Philip W. Anderson (born 1923) American,
Sir Nevill F. Mott (born 1905) British, John H. Van Vleck (1899-1980)
American, Contributions to solid-state electronics, including the development of
basic theories of magnetism and conduction. They were credited with discovering
the use of economical materials, such as amorphous silicon in the development of
computers.
1977: James Elliot, rings of Uranus.
Olive and Montenen, conjecture of elecro-magnetic duality. Klaus von
Klitzing, quantum Hall effect. Raymond Damadian builds his first
Magnetic Resonance Imager (MRI) used to generate 3-D images of the
human body using the principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
spectroscopy (NMR). Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak introduce
first Apple Computer.
1978: Peter D. Mitchell (United Kingdom,
*1920) Studies of biological energy transfer, development of the chemiosmotic
theory
Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (1894-1984) Soviet,
Arno Allan Penzias (born 1933) American, Robert Woodrow Wilson
(born 1936) American, Research on liquefaction of helium. Discovery of
electromagnetic radiation, supporting "big bang'' theory.
1978: Charon, moon of Pluto. Taylor
and Hulse, evidence for gravitational radiation of binary pulsar.
Prescott, Taylor, elctro-weak effect on electron polarisation.
1978: Chlorofluorcarbons (Freons) are
banned as spray propellants in the U.S. because of fears over the
Ozone Layer. The U.S. Government begins limiting the amount of
lead permitted in gasoline. The action is taken to prevent deterioration
of the platinum catalysts in catalytic converters, not to protect the
public's safety.
1978: First test tube baby born in England.
1979: Georg Wittig (Germany, 1897-1987),
Herbert C. Brown (USA, *1912) Development of (organic) boron and
phosphorous compounds.
Sheldon L. Glashow (born 1932)
American, Abdus Salam (born 1926) Pakistani, Steven Weinberg (born
1933) American, Contributions to theory of unified weak and electromagnetic
interaction between elementary particles.
1979: Voyager, rings of Jupiter.
No one is injured, but many are terrified, by an nuclear reactor incident
at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania. Cellular phones first
introduced in Japan.
1979: Genetic Engineering succeeds in
synthesising human insulin. Smallpox eradication program of WHO
completed
1979: Soviet forces invade Afganistan.
The Shah of Iran flees and Ayatollah Khomeini comes into power.
Margaret Thatcher becomes Britain´s first woman Prime Minister
Late 1970's: Love Canal (in New York) and the
Valley of Drums (10,000 leaking hazardous waste drums near West Point,
KY) keep environmental issues in the news and are described as "ticking time
bombs."
1980: Paul Berg (USA, *1926) Studies on the
biochemistry of nucleic acids, particularly hybrid DNA (technology of gene
surgery)
Walter Gilbert (USA, *1932), Frederick Sanger (United Kingdom, 1918) Determination of base sequences in nucleic acids
James W. Cronin (born 1931) American, Val
L. Fitch (born 1923) American, Discovery of Cronin-Fitch Effect in the
behavior of subatomic particles.
1980: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that General
Electric can Patent a microbe used for oil cleanup.The
U.S. Government bans the sale of lead based paints.The
Superfund, containing $1.6 billion, is formed to be used by the
EPA in cleaning up pollution sites.
1980: France explodes a neutron bomb. The
"push through tabs" used on today's pop and beer cans are first
introduced. Personal computer industry expands. Frederick Reines,
Evidence of Neutrino oscillations. Alan Guth inflationary early universe.
1980: Solidarity trade union and Lech Valesa in
Poland. War starts between Iran and Iraq. Ronald Reagan defeats
incumbent Jimmy Carter in US presidential election. West German Green Party
organized and spurs formation of green parties in other countries.
1981: Kenichi Fukui (Japan, *1918), Roald
Hoffmann (USA, *1937) Theories on the progress of chemical reactions
(frontier orbital theory)
Nicolaas Bloembergen (born 1920) American,
Arthur L. Schawlow (born 1921) American, Kai M. Siegbahn (born
1918) Swedish, Discoveries in electron spectroscopy. Pioneering work in the
field of laser spectroscopy.
1981: Witten, Schoen, Yau positive energy
theorem in general relativity. Green and Schwarz, Type I superstring
theory. Binnig, Rohrer & Heinrich Roher scanning
tunneling electron microscope. Alexander Polyakov Path integral
quantisation of strings, conformal symmetry and critical dimension. Linde,
Albrecht, Steinhardt new inflationary universe.
1981: Microsoft develops MS-DOS for the
IBM PC.
1981: Hyprotech develops Hysim, first
comercial PC based Process Simulation software for Chemical Engineering.
1981: A rare cancer, Kaposi´s sarcoma, associated with
AIDS virus. AIDS first identified as a new infectious disease
1981: NASA's "Columbia" Space Shuttle becomes
the world's first reusable space craft.
1982: Aaron Klug (United Kingdom, *1926)
Development of crystallographic methods for the elucidation of biologically
important nucleic acid protein complexes
Kenneth G. Wilson (born 1936) American,
Investigation of phase changes.
1982: Green and Schwarz, Type II superstring
theory. Alain Aspect an experiment to confirm non-local aspects of
quantum theory. Darnstadt element 109, meitnerium.The compact disc
introduced by Philips and Sony. Human insulin produced in bacteria approved by
FDA in the US.
1982 Israel invades Lebanon and neutralizes PLO and
Syrian forces. Falkland (Malvinas) war as Argentina invades Falkland Islands.
Worldwide ban on whaling. Iran gets the upper hand in its war with Irak.
1983: Henry Taube (Canada, *1915) Reaction
mechanisms of electron transfer, especially with metal complexes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (born 1910)
American, William A. Fowler (born 1911) American, Pioneering work on the
evolution of stars.
1983: Carl Sagan, and a group of scientists,
publishes an alarming report concerning the long term climatic impacts of
nuclear war. Andrei Linde chaotic inflationary universe
1984: Robert Bruce Merrifield (USA, *1921)
Method for the preparation of peptides and proteins
Carlo Rubbia (born 1934) Italian, Simon van
der Meer (born 1925) Dutch, Discovery of W and Z field particles as proof of
weak-force theory. Design of colliding-beam accelerator that led to discovery of
W and Z field particles.
1984: Darnstadt element 108, hassium.
AT&T is broken into "Baby Bells" by the U.S. government.
Apple introduces the Macintosh personal computer.
1984: An accidental toxic gas release by Union
Carbide kills over 2000 in Bhopal, India. HIV virus found to cause
AIDS
1985: Herbert A. Hauptman (USA, 1917),
Jerome Karle (USA, 1918) Development of direct methods for the
determination of crystal structures
Klaus von Klitzing (born 1943) German,
Application of quantum theory to commercial electronics.
1985: Mikhail Gorbachev succeds Chernenko as Secretary
of Soviet Communist Party. "Glasnost" and "Perestroika" in Soviet Union.
1985: Richard E. Smalley and Harold W.
Kroto discover "Buckyballs", a soccer ball like molecule made of 60
carbon atoms. Gross, Harvey, Martinec, Rohm, heterotic string theory.
David Deutsch, theory of quantum computing.
1985: Low petroleum prices lead to the
cancellation of the U.S. Government sponsored "Synfuels" project,
designed to develop alternative energy sources based on coal or oil shales.
1986: John C. Polanyi (Canada, *1929),
Dudley R. Herschbach (USA, *1932), Yuan Tseh Lee (USA, *1936)
Dynamics of chemical elementary processes
Ernst Ruska (1906-88) German, Gerd
Binnig (born 1947) German, Heinrich Rohrer (born 1933) Swiss,
Invention of the first working electron microscope. Invention of the scanning
tunneling microscope.
1986: Bednorz and Mueller, high
temperature superconductivity
Abhay Ashtekar, new variables for
canonical quantum gravity
Geller, Huchra, Lapparent, bubble structure
of galaxy distributions
1986: Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor #4 explodes,
releasing large amounts of radiation near Kiev, USSR. NASA's Space
Shuttle, Challenger, explodes shortly after take off. Murder of Swedish
Premier Olof Palme.
1986: K. Alex Muller and George J. Bednorz discover a
superconductor that operates at 30 degrees Kelvin. This sets of an
explosion in "high" temperature superconductors.
1987: Donald J. Cram (USA, *1919), Charles
J. Pedersen (USA, 1904-1989), Jean-Marie Lehn (France, *1939)
Development of molecules with structurally specific interaction of high
selectivity.
Johannes Georg Bednorz (born 1950) German,
Karl A. Muller (born 1927) Swiss, Discoveries in the field of
superconductivity.
1987: Masatoshi Koshibas, detection of neutrinos from a supernova
1987: Japan's "Nipon Zeon" company develops a
plastic with "memory". At low temperatures it can be bent and twisted,
however when heated above 37 degrees Celsius it returns to its initial shape.
Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev sign treaty on nuclear arms.
1988: Johann Deisenhofer (Germany, *1943),
Robert Huber (Germany, *1937), Hartmut Michel (Germany, *1948)
Determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction
center.
Leon Max Lederman (born 1922) American,
Melvin Schwartz (born 1932) American, Jack Steinberger (born 1921)
American, Discovery of a new subatomic particle, the muon neutrino.
1988: Mikhail Gorbachev withdraws defeated Soviet
troops from Afghanistan. Iraqi forces attack Kurdish insurgents using
poison gas
1988: RU-486 abortion pill developed by French
scientist Etienne Baulieu. A Scanning Tunneling Microscope produces the
first picture of a Benzene Ring. Atiyah, Witten, topological
quantum field theories. Smolin and Rovelli, loop representation of
quantum gravity.
1989: Sidney Altman (Canada, *1939), Thomas
Robert Cech (USA, *1947) Discovery of the catalytic properties of
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Hans G. Dehmelt (born 1922) American,
Wolfgang Paul (born 1913) German, Norman F. Ramsey (born 1915)
American, Development of method to isolate charged particles and atoms to study
properties. Work leading to development of atomic clock.
1989: The Human Genome Project, designed to map
all the genes in a human being, is launched. An Exxon Oil Tanker, the
Valdez, runs aground in of the coast of Alaska.
1989: Tim Berners-Lee, The World Wide Web.
Bennett and Brassard, first quantum computer.
1989: The fall of Berlin Wall. Massive
pro-democracy demonstration in East Germany. Tiananmen Square massacre in
Beijing. Czechoslovakia becomes a free nation with Vaclav Havel as
its president. Trade union "Solidarity" legalized in Poland. Saddam Hussein of
Iraq kills 5000 Kurds using gas. Ayatollah Khomeini pronounces religious ruling
(fatwah) over Salman Rushdie.
1990: Elias James Corey (USA, *1928)
Development of novel methods for the synthesis of complex natural compounds
(retrosynthetic analysis)
Richard E. Taylor (born 1929) Canadian,
Jerome I. Friedman (born 1930) American, Henry W. Kendall (born
1926) American, Work to prove the existence of the quark.
1990: John Mather, black body spectrum
of cosmic background radiation from COBE
1990: Congress passes the "Pollution Prevention
Act" which "encourages" companies to reduce pollution. Global satellite
positioning, cellular telephones. Hubble Space Telescope in orbit
1990: Lithuania declares independence from
Soviet Union in March 11. As response URSS sends troops and blocks
gas and oil supplies. Saddam Hussein sends Iraqi troups to invade
Kuwait. The US invades Panama to oust General Noriega. Nelson
Mandela released from South African jail: President Willem De Klerck.
1991: Richard Robert
Ernst (Switzerland, *1933) Development of high resolution nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (born 1932) French,
Work on how complex forms of matter behave.
1991: CERN, confirmation that number of
light neutrinos is 3
1991: The Soviet Union formally dissolves,
after a failed putch against Gorbachev. Boris Yeltsin takes over
Russian government. Baltic states regain their
independence. Croatia and Slovenia declare independence as
Yugoslavia falls apart. Bosnia and Herzegovina secede from Yugoslavia.
1991: Operation "Desert Storm" ousts Iraqi
troops from Kuwait in the decisive U.S. success versus Iraq in the Gulf
War. Ecological disaster in Persian Gulf as Iraq sets fire to oil wells.
1992 : Rudolph A. Marcus (USA, *1923) Theories
of electron transfer
Georges Charpak (born 1924) French,
Development of detector devices used in particle accelerators.
1992: Mather and Smoot, angular fluctuations in
cosmic background radiation with COBE. The Australian Government begins a
three year plan to introduce plastic $5, $10, $20, $50, & $100
bills.
1993: Kary Banks Mullis (USA, *1944) Invention
of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Michael Smith (Canada, *1932)
Development of site specific mutagenesis.
Russell Hulse American (1952) Princeton
University, Joseph Taylor American (1942) Princeton University, For
discovering binary pulsars. They are dense spinning stars which give off pulses
of magnetic energy.
1993: New York's "World Trade Center" is bombed
by terrorists. The explosive was created by a 26-year-old chemical
engineer educated at Rutgers University.War in Yugoslavia.
Insurrection in Moscow by opponents to Yeltsin.
1993: The high price of replacing a corroding heat
exchanger causes the Portland General Electric Company to retire, rather
than repair, its Nuclear Power Plant in Rainier Oregon.
1993: Procter & Gamble adds the
cellulose enzyme to "Cheer". This enzyme breaks down
cellulose (plant fiber) and it is hoped that it will promote digestion of
damaged cotton fibers, leaving undamaged ones intact.
1994: George A.
Olah (USA) Carbocations
Clifford G. Shull (Canadian) Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Bertram N. Brockhouse (American) McMaster
University, Both researchers, pioneers in the field of neutron scattering,
developed neutron spectroscopy, a method of studying atoms, the elements that
make up all matter.
1994: Hubble Space Telescope,
Evidence for black hole at the centre of galaxy M87. Peter Shor,
factorisation algorithm for a quantum computer. Hull, Townsend, Unity of
String Dualities. Darnstadt element 110. Opening of channel tunnel
offering fast rail communication between UK and the continent.
Israeli-Palestinian Peace accords. Genocide in Rwanda
as hardline Hutus murder approx. 1 million Tutsis. War in Chechnya as it tries
to break free from Russia. Restoration of Michelangelo´s fresco in Sistine
Chapel completed.
1995 : Paul
Crutzen (Netherlands, *1933), Mario Molina (Mexico, *1943), Frank
Sherwood Rowland (USA, *1927) for their work in atmospheric chemistry,
particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.
Martin L. Perl of Stanford University,
Frederick Reines of the University of California, Irvine, Two of nature's
most remarkable subatomic particles, tau and the neutrino
1995: Cornell, Wieman, Anderson
Bose-Einstein condensate of atomic gas. CERN, Creation of
Anti-hydrogen atoms. Mayor and Queloz, first extra-solar planet orbiting
an ordinary star. Darnstadt element 111.
1995: The Shinri Kyo cult uses Sarin
nerve gas in the deadly Tokyo subway attack. A bomb made from
ammonium nitrate fertilizer and fuel oil destroys the Federal
Building in Oklahoma City. Mad cow disease. New infectious agent
suspected of causing disease in man.
1995: Chemical Engineering Progress publishes a
paper submitted by L.Klemas and J. Bonilla on
Maldistribution and Efficiency in Packed Distillation Columns,
providing a coherent theory to predict mass transfer efficiency in distillation
columns.
1996 : Robert
F. Curl, Jr. (USA, *1933), Sir Harold W. Kroto (United Kingdom,
*1939), Richard E. Smalley (USA, *1943) for their discovery of
fullerenes.
David M. Lee Cornell University American,
Douglas D. Osheroff -- Stanford University American, Robert C.
Richardson -- Cornell University American, For their discovery of
superfluidity in helium-3.
1996: Steven Lamoreaux, measurement of
Casimir force. Darnstadt element 112. Space Research: Mars
Pathfinder and Mars Global Surveyor launched. Banks, Fischler, Shenker,
Susskind, M-theory as a matrix model.
1997 : Paul
D. Boyer (USA, *1918), John E. Walker (United Kingdom, *1941) for
their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Jens C. Skou (Denmark, *1918) for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+-ATPase
1998: Robert B. Laughlin, Stanford University,
California, USA, Horst L. Störmer, Columbia University, New York and Bell
Labs, New Jersey, USA, Daniel C. Tsui, Princeton University, Princeton,
New Jersey, USA, experiment using extremely powerful magnetic fields and low
temperatures. the electrons in a powerful magnetic field can condense to form a
kind of quantum fluid related to the quantum fluids that occur in
superconductivity and in liquid helium.They receive the Nobel in physics for
their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged
excitations.
1998:Walter Kohn, University of California at
Santa Barbara, USA for his development of the density-functional theory
and John A. Pople, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
(British citizen) for his development of computational methods in quantum
chemistry
1998:Robert F Furchgott, Louis J Ignarro and Ferid
Murad awarded Nobel Price in Medicine for their discoveries concerning
nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system.
1998: Sexgate scandal of the US President. USA second
war against Iraq, this time without approval of the UN Security Council,
lasting 4 days bombardments, followed by the air force enforcement of the
exclusion zone.
1999: USA commands NATO forces to strike Yugoslavia to
oust their military forces from Kosovo, producing 1 million refugees as a result
of this 'humanitarian war'. The actions justified a US military budget increase
of 12,000 (or 120,000 ?) million dollars for this 79 days 'high tech nintendo'
war, while the international community collected around 600 million dollars to
help for Kosovo and Yugoslavia 'reconstruction'. Russian second war against Chechnya, after governement
accusations related to terrorist attacks in Moscow. Boris Yeltsin resigns
and is replaced by Putin, a former KGB agent, who directs the total brutal war
in Chechnya. US Congress voted against the US commitment
to the International Treaty to ban nuclear weapon tests.
1999: Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Ahmed H.
Zewail, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, USA for showing that
it is possible with rapid laser technique to see how atoms in a molecule move
during a chemical reaction. The Academy's citation: For his studies of the
transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy.
1999: Nobel Prize in Physics: Gerardus 't
Hooft, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands, Martinus J.G.
Veltman, Bilthoven, the Netherlands. The two researchers are being awarded
the Nobel Prize for having placed particle physics theory on a firmer
mathematical foundation. They have in particular shown how the theory may be
used for precise calculations of physical quantities. Experiments at accelerator
laboratories in Europe and the USA have recently confirmed many of the
calculated results. The Academy's citation: "for elucidating the quantum
structure of electroweak interactions in physics."
1999: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine:
Günter Blobel for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that
govern their transport and localization in the cell.
1999: Unprecedent disasters exacerbated by global
warming hit Central America (Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala) and
Venezuela, producing a toll of around 50,000 deaths and many billions US$ in
material damages, exceeding the all time disaster records of
1998. Although many developed countries provided some relief help as usual
in such cases, there in no question yet on economic responsibility for
collateral damages of the wrong economic-technological model egocentrically
pursued by the rich overdeveloped world countries.
For a peaceful, happy, and prosperous new millennium for the next generations, when all human beings reach the benefits of science, technology, and culture, learning the value and joy of life, the equitable sharing of resources and knowledge, in communion and respect with the nature in all its rich diversity that has nourished all the previous generations.
Information without knowledge is noise, knowledge without wisdom is dangerous stupidity
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Some links to our related pages:
Combusem: Combustion Emission Simulation Software
The Closing Circle: The Environmental Crisis
Green Crusades: Environmental Conflict in History
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